ABSTRACT Background: The objective of the present work was to investigate the influence of a pre-treatment of microbial-rich digestate (liquid mesophilic anaerobic digestate - AD-supernatant) on the morphology, crystallinity, and thermal stability of cellulose pulp fiber. Results: The six most abundant bacteria in the AD-supernatant were determined by 16S analysis. The bacteria population was comprised mostly of Bacteroides graminisolvens (66%) and Parabacteroides chartae (28%). Enzymatic activity from the bacteria partially removed the amorphous components and increased the crystallinity and crystallite size of the cellulose substrate. The fiber pulp was incubated in AD-supernatant for 5, 10, and 20 days. The X-ray diffraction data provided evidence that the amorphous portion of the cellulose was more readily and quickly hydrolyzed than the crystalline portion. The longest incubation times (20 days) resulted in substantial deconstruction of the cellulose fiber structure and decreased the thermal degradation temperature. Conclusion: The anaerobic digestate is inexpensive and could be used to effectively aid in the pre-treatment of cellulose on large scale transformation processes, e.g. for making biofuels, cellulose micro/nanofiber production or engineered fiber-based materials.

ABSTRACT Background: In timber structures, connections are the most important and critical section which supply the strength of each structural element. The aim of this study was evaluation the behavior of epoxy resin reinforced by nanoclay (at three levels) on the pull-out strength of glued-in GFRP rods in glulam. For this purpose, two rods with three lengths (50, 150 and 250 mm) and diameters (6.4, 12.7 and 19.1 mm) were inserted at two opposite sides of glulam blocks (with dimension of 8.89 x 8.89 x 29.94 cm) which were glued by epoxy resin. Samples underwent tensile testing and their tensile strength and shear strength were measured. The obtained data were analyzed statistically and the effects of studied factors on bond strength were evaluated. Results: The results showed that the strength of bonding increased with the addition of a low amount of nanoclay, and the length of the rod had a greater effect than its diameter. Furthermore, the amount of nanoclay, rod length and diameter could not significantly affect simultaneously, the performance and strength of glued-in GFRP rods. Conclusion: Nanoclay particle can be considered as a reinforcement for epoxy resin in glued-in GFRP rods and its effect may cause a considerable increase in the mechanical strengths of joints.

ABSTRACT Background: During the past decade, the phenomenon of Oak decline has affected valuable Zagros Oak Forests in western Iran. Quercus brantii as the most important tree species of these forests has been damaged more than any other species. Many factors are involved in this phenomenon. The purpose of this study was to identify areas with high potential for decline and determine the most important factors affecting it. In this study, using multi-criteria evaluation methods based on the Geographic Information System (GIS) Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method and fuzzy logic, the map of decline potential of two selected stands (Dalab and Cheghasabz) in Ilam Province was prepared to reveal the high-risk areas of decline. The analytical hierarchical process was used to determine the weight of the factors. Results: The results showed that both selected stands had decline potential. However, the Dalab stand at 25% and the Cheghasabz, at approximately 60% of the stand has an extreme potential for decline. Rainfall factors, pests, and diseases also have the greatest effect on Oak forest decline. Conclusion: Due to socio-economic problems such as land use change, fire, tourism, grazing, and pruning, the Cheghasabz is more prone to decline than the Dalab, which was a forest reserve. The multi-criteria evaluation model used in the study can be a guide in identifying high-risk areas in other parts of the Zagros forests. The large area of critical areas in these two regions reveals the need for planning to implement support operations to reconstruct damaged ecosystems.

ABSTRACT Background: Forests are the main terrestrial regulators of greenhouse gas concentrations. However, estimates of carbon fluxes in them are characterized by large uncertainties. Therefore, the derivation of predictors for their assessment is an urgent task. The aim was to assess the carbon stocks in the biomass to characterize the intensity of aboveground net production and the amount of litterfall in Scots pine forests of different types on the North-East of the Europe. We estimated biomass and aboveground net primary production (ANPP) of stands using sample trees. For vegetation of ground cover biomass and primary production evaluating, we cut off all aboveground organs on an area of 625 cm2 and removed the first-year parts. Litterfall was collected over 3-6 years using litter traps. Results: Most of the carbon in the biomass of pine forests is concentrated in trees (Cstand) with dominating role of stem wood. However, in boggy forests, ground vegetation plays a significant role in carbon stocks, both in absolute and relative values. We estimated carbon fluxes in ANPP and stand litterfall. High contribution of needles was detected for these flows. The ratio between ANPP and Cstand varied from 0.018 to 0.056 but between Litterfal and Cstand ranged from 0.008 to 0.024. Conclusion: The biomass, ANPP and litterfall depended form forest type. Obtained ratios between them can be used for assessing carbon fluxes in large regions using remote data collection of forest biomass.

ABSTRACT Background: Climate warming has caused substantial changes in temporal and spatial environmental patterns. The study on hot spots of rare and endangered plants in Northwest China under predicted climate change can provide a scientific reference for the restoration and reconstruction of those degraded habitats, as well as the improvement of the protection system in Northwest China. Results: Based on MaxEnt algorithm, 813 effective distribution records and 11 environmental factor variables of rare and endangered plants in Northwest China, this study identified the changes of biodiversity hotspots of rare and endangered plants in Northwest China under predicted climate change. The results showed that: (1) the prediction accuracy of MaxEnt model is high, the area under the curve (AUC) is 0.876, and the total suitable area for potential geographical distribution of rare and endangered plants in Northwest China is 137.96×104km2, mainly including Western and Southwestern Xinjiang, Southern Gansu, parts of Eastern and Southern Qinghai Province, and Southern Shaanxi Province; (2) altitude, temperature and precipitation are the main environmental factors affecting the hot spots of rare and endangered plants in Northwest China; (3) under four climate change scenarios in the future, with the increase of emission scenarios from low to high forcing, Xinjiang would have the most obvious loss of hot spots of rare and endangered plants in Northwest China, and the most obvious increase of which would occur in Qinghai and Gansu provinces. Conclusion: Under the climate change scenario in the future, with the emission scenario increasing from low forcing to high forcing, the most obvious loss of the hot spots of rare and endangered plants in Northwest China happens in Xinjiang Province, and that of the most obvious increase occurs in Qinghai and Gansu provinces.

ABSTRACT Background: Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests (SDTF) are recognized by their great biological diversity, but little is known about their temporal patterns, which may be crucial in a changing world. Here we aimed to characterize the SDTF dynamic patterns in floristic and structural changes, and also to evaluate shifts in dynamic rates and structural attributes such as richness, number of trees and biomass. Our hypothesis is that SDTF tree communities have their dynamic characterized by temporal fluctuations related to an instability pattern, in according to the already found for others tropical forests. For this we used a data of 42 400 m² plots in three fragments in the Brazilian Arboreal Caatinga, measured in 2005, 2010 and 2015. We evaluated temporal changes in richness, species composition, trees density, biomass and rates of tree mortality and recruitment; and also rates of biomass gain and loss. Results: We found a pattern of floristic composition stability, but with changes in structure and dynamics. There was a tree density decrease driven by constant mortality and by recruitment decrease, and biomass increase due to decrease in biomass loss and to increase in biomass gain. The biomass increase was main related to a small set of dominant species that are the most representative in the community dynamics. Conclusion: SDTF dynamics are related to stability in species composition, but with structural changes towards higher biomass stocks. The results are main related to community dynamics and to SDTF attributes such as climatic seasonality that drives the local ecological processes.

ABSTRACT Background: Despite the importance of Plathymenia reticulata for forestry and ecological purposes, a protocol for the vegetative propagation of the species remains unclear mainly due to the low adventitious rooting of the propagules of the species. In this sense, this work aimed to evaluate the rooting of mini-cuttings of juvenile materials of P. reticulata and our hypothesis: (1) maintaining propagules under mist chamber for different periods affects the rooting process; (2) the mini-stump management system due to the restriction of the root system affects the production of mini-cuttings and the quality of clonal seedlings. Results: It was not necessary for more than 30 days in a mist chamber to induce rooting. The highest percentage of rooting was obtained 50 days after staking. Mini-gardens set up in suspended seed bed and tubes (280 cm3) had the average mini-cuttings productivity of 4.32 and 2.06, respectively, over 270 days of exploration (monthly collections). At 120 days after staking, there was no difference in the survival and in the final quality of clonal seedlings produced. However, clonal seedlings from mini-garden in tubes had higher height, leaf area, and number of first-order roots. Regardless of the mini-garden management, the clonal seedling production index was 50%. Conclusion: We can conclude that P. reticulata seedling production via mini-cutting technique is possible.

ABSTRACT Background: Understanding forest dynamics after logging is essential to define forest management cycles and intensities. In secondary forest, especially in the Atlantic Forest Domain, these studies are still scarce. Monitoring of the canopy structure after tree harvesting can be performed by hemispherical photographs, where canopy opening is commonly analyzed. This study evaluated changes in canopy opening four years after tree harvesting in a secondary Atlantic Rainforest in southern Brazil. We used hemispherical photographs to determine the Canopy Openness (CO), Leaf Area Index (LAI), and Diffuse Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Absorbed Radiation (FAPARdif) in eleven permanent plots. Results: We found that harvesting resulted in a momentary increase in canopy opening and light availability in the understory. Four years after harvesting, CO, LAI and FAPARdif recovered or even exceeded the original values of the forest. We observed a significant correlation between CO and number of trees harvested with DBH > 30 cm. Weak correlations were found between these canopy related variables and the logging intensity. Conclusion: In conclusion, we recognized that changes of CO, LAI and FAPARdif after timber harvesting presented short duration. This indicates that the applied logging intensities, 21.8 to 51.1% of the total basal area, did not exceed the resilience of the forest canopy and it’s recovering four years later. However, additional studies should be carried out to observe vegetation dynamics, such as species composition, vertical structure, productivity and community stability, in order to improve management schemes of secondary stands in the Atlantic Forest.

ABSTRACT Background: Along the vertical canopy profile, natural light availability is variable and may induce leaves morphophysiological changes due to phenotypic plasticity. Morphological changes in juvenile and adult leaflet of compound leaves of plant species is still poorly understood, including in woody species of gallery forests. The present study evaluated the leaflet morphophysiological characteristics and plasticity index of three woody species in canopy and understory leaves in a gallery forest. Results: All morphophysiological characteristics varied within species (Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão, Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. and Tapirira guianensis Aubl.). The leaflets of canopy trees showed significantly higher values of petiole length (PL) and diameter (PD), leaflet thickness (fresh - FT and dry - DT), specific leaf mass (SLM), in relation to understory leaflets. On the other hand, relative water content (RWC) did not change between adult trees and saplings, except for T. guianensis. The plasticity index of leaflet characteristics varied significantly within species. Plasticity index of three morphophysiological characteristics (PL, PD and DT) varied between species. PL and PD had the highest plasticity index values across species, whereas RWC had the lowest plasticity.. Conclusion: Plasticity index of the tree species associates these leaflet morphophysiological traits (PL, PD and DT) with variations in the physical environment between strata of a gallery forest.

ABSTRACT Background: This study evaluated the distribution of pine mistletoe in Scots pine ecosystems in relation to topographic variables and land uses. A total of 109 sample plots were selected from pure Scots pine forests in the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey. The 6-class dwarf mistletoe rating was used for infection severity. Pearson correlation analysis results showed significant relationships between mistletoe infection severity and topographic variables in 30 m buffer and land use in 500 m buffer. Results: Of the sample plots, 69 (63%) were mistletoe infected, and 40 (37%) were uninfected. The t-test results showed that there was a significant difference between mean topographic variables and land use in mistletoe infected and uninfected sample plots. The results of the binary logistic regression analysis showed that altitude, productive forest, slope, and road distance were the most significant predictors of the distribution of pine mistletoe as topographic variables and land uses. Conclusion: The common direction of mistletoe infected areas, in addition to Scots pine ecosystems, was low altitudes, sheltered valleys, more humid areas and different land use (agriculture, road and stream).

ABSTRACT Background: Eucalyptus dorrigoensis withstands cold weather and the occurrence of frost, making it a potential species for improvement programs in Southern Brazil where such conditions occur. However, the use of the species is still uncommon and its genetic variability remains poorly understood.d. Results: For site called Sertão Santana, the narrow sense heritability ranged from 0.46 (H) to 0.64 (MAI) and for Lavras do Sul it ranged from 0.38 (H) to 0.47 (MAI). The coefficient of genetic variation varied from 8.1% (H) to 26.1% (MAI). There is significant genetic correlation between DBH and MAI, reaching a value of 0.97. The GxE interaction was significant and mostly complex (78.7%). The best genetic materials for each environment, along with the most stable genetic materials, were identified. In addition, a thinning simulation was performed and the genetic gains for Sertão Santana and Lavras do Sul were 12.62 and 7.43%, respectively. Conclusion: The studied populations have genetic variability that can be used in breeding programs by selecting among progenies and individuals within progenies. The GxE interaction is complex, and as such, the best genetic material should be selected independently for each site. The results of this study have practical implications for the companies and offer advances in knowledge of the species for breeding programs.

ABSTRACT Background: Many historical buildings in Iran need to be protected. In many of these buildings, wood is used as a structural element in features such as beam, pile, roof and floor systems. For this purpose, the architectural features of a historical building located in Gorgan (Northern part of Iran) and characterisation of faults, in addition to identification of wood species were conducted. Stress wave non-destructive testing (NDT) was used and wave speed (WS) was measured in tested members to evaluate the decay situation of major wooden beams of building frames and roof truss. After obtaining data related to WS, time of wave transition (TWT) was calculated and compared with control time. Structural elements were characterized in comparison with control time and classified according to decay severity. Results: The results showed that local hardwood species were used for construction of this building. Furthermore, in some parts of the building, there were severely defected structures, thus highlighting the importance of safety. Moreover, WS strongly depended on the types of faults. Conclusion: Due to high relative humidity of climate, wood structures are exposed to faults in the northern region of Iran. However, their general appearance is adequate and acceptable. For better decision making, the TWT should be accompanied by more investigation into the types of defects.

abstract background: the recovery of areas impacted by mining activities is a major challenge and requires knowledge of how the biological and biochemical processes of the soil as well as the establishment of plant species are affected by mining residue. in this work, the influence of deposition of iron mining mud and tailings on soil biochemical attributes and the initial development of tree seedlings was studied in a simulated event in the greenhouse. pots (n = 27) with natural soil (2.0 kg) received deposition (280 ml) of iron mining mud or tailings and by three-month was cultivated with urochloa decumbens. at the end of this period, part of the pots was sampled and the soil biochemical activities were evaluated. then tree seedlings (schinus terebinthifolius and eremanthus incanus) were planted and cultivated for a year, when then shoot (sdw) and roots (rdw) dry weight were evaluated. results: deposition of iron mining mud and tailings did not affect microbial biomass carbon or basal soil respiration, however both conditions reduced (p < 0.05) β-glucosidase activities by up to 30%, and the easy extractable glomalin by about 19%. in addition, the mud deposition reduced (p < 0.05) the sdw and rdw of s. terebinthifolius by about 21% and 24%, respectively. nevertheless, uruchloa decumbens and eremanthus incanus had no variation in dry weight production between treatments, so they have good ability to grow settle in soil affected by mining residue. conclusion: this study shows that the sequential planting of u. decumbens and e. incanus can be an alternative for use in environments with deposition of iron mining tailings.

ABSTRACT Background: Today’s European fauna was formed under the influence of Paleoclimatic change. The distribution of two wild cat species of Europe, Lynx pardinus and Lynx lynx, 22,000 and 6,000 years ago were determined by the MaxEnt method in relation to the Paleoclimatological scenarios (LGM and Mid-Holocene) and fossil records. Then, the current climate conditions and their distributions under the effect of anthropogenic climate change scenarios were analyzed with the current existence records. Results: It was determined that these two wild cats were distributed according to preys on which they specialized, rather than the climate change that lasted for thousands of years. It was observed that Lynx Pardinus, which specialized only on European rabbit hunting, could not expand its distribution from past to present. Lynx lynx, on the other hand, expanded its distribution throughout the Palearctic region and adapted to different ecosystem varieties by means of its specialization on many preys from mouse to moose. Based on the climate envelope model results created with the help of MaxEnt which considers anthropogenic climate change scenarios (RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6.0 and RCP8.5 2070) and today’s data of two existing Lynx species, suitable habitats for L. pardinus will decrease and suitable habitats will emerge in Western France. L. lynx, on the other hand, will limit its wide distribution to the North, except for the Alps, the Carpathians and the Caucasus, which will serve as refugial areas. Conclusion: These results therefore require that measurements such as reducing climate change impacts over the next 50 years, protecting existing and potential habitats in advance, and reducing anthropogenic impact should be enforced.

ABSTRACT Background: The objective of this study was to determine the distribution of some endemic species of the genus Astragalus L. (Astragalus anthylloides Lam., Astragalus lycius Boiss. and Astragalus xylobasis var. angustus (Freyn & Sint.) Freyn & Bornm.) species, and the interaction between soil, climatic characteristics and desertification risk which affect the distribution of these species in the semi-arid environment of Çankırı, northwest Turkey. During the vegetation period in 2017, soil and plant samples were collected from 180 points. Desertification risk (DR) and environmentally sensitive area index (ESAI) were calculated for each sampling point using the desertification indicator system for Mediterranean Europe (DIS4ME). Results: According to the DIS4ME system in the forest areas, DR values for A. anthylloides and A. lycius were lowest with 0.49 (no desertification risk) and highest with 3.73 (moderate desertification risk), and with an average of 2.20 in the field (low desertification risk). For A. xylobasis var. angustus in grassland, the DR values ranged from a low of 5.01 to a high of 5.42. The ESAI values ranged from 1.34 to 1.50 in the forest areas where the species A. anthylloides and A. lycius were distributed, and they ranged between 1.33 and 1.47 for A. xylobasis var. angustus in the grassland areas. The results of the analysis between the DR values and Astragalus L. species changes according to the land use types and plant distribution. Conclusion: When the relationships between all three of these endemic species’ DR values are evaluated together, they emerged as the best plant species indicator for determining desertification status.