Abstract Long-term-ecological-research (LTER) faces many challenges, including the difficulty of obtaining long-term funding, changes in research questions and sampling designs, keeping researchers collecting standardized data for many years, impediments to interactions with local people, and the difficulty of integrating the needs of local decision makers with “big science”. These issues result in a lack of universally accepted guidelines as to how research should be done and integrated among LTER sites. Here we discuss how the RAPELD (standardized field infrastructure system), can help deal with these issues as a complementary technique in LTER studies, allowing comparisons across landscapes and ecosystems and reducing sampling costs. RAPELD uses local surveys to understand broad spatial and temporal patterns while enhancing decision-making and training of researchers, local indigenous groups and traditional communities. Sampling of ecological data can be carried out by different researchers through standardized protocols, resulting in spatial data that can be used to answer temporal questions, and allow new questions to be investigated. Results can also be integrated into existing biodiversity networks. Integrated systems are the most efficient way to save resources, maximize results, and accumulate information that can be used in the face of the unknown unknowns upon which our future depends.

RESUMO Mamíferos neotropicais de médio e grande porte são elementos chave em ecossistemas florestais, e unidades de conservação são essenciais para sua conservação. No Brasil, as unidades de conservação de uso sustentável (UC-US) permitem tanto a conservação da biodiversidade quanto a exploração sustentável dos recursos naturais, especialmente na Amazônia. Porém, as UC-US geralmente são afetadas por pressões internas e externas, e podem apresentar diferentes graus de defaunação. Amostramos mamíferos de médio e grande porte usando armadilhas fotográficas em duas áreas com distintos históricos de manejo e ocupação humana na Floresta Nacional do Tapajós (FNT), na Amazônia ocidental. Em geral, registramos uma rica assembleia de espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte, mas as duas áreas diferiram na composição de espécies. A área com ocupação humana mais intensa e antiga e exploração florestal apresentou mais registros independentes de espécies generalistas, enquanto espécies maiores, como Tapirus terrestris e Panthera onca, foram registradas exclusivamente na área com menor ocupação humana e sem manejo florestal. A comparação de nossos resultados com estudos similares em outros locais na Amazônia sugere uma redução no tamanho populacional de mamíferos de grande porte, como Tapirus terrestris e Tayassu pecari, provavelmente em resposta ao aumento das atividades humanas. Diferenças locais na ocupação humana dentro de e entre unidades de conservação são comuns na Amazônia, demandando ações específicas do poder público para minimizar impactos de atividades humanas sobre a fauna silvestre. Especificamente na FNT, recomendamos o monitoramento de longa duração das respostas de mamíferos às atividades humanas, para melhor embasar ações de conservação e manejo.

ABSTRACT Neotropical medium and large-bodied mammals are key elements in forest ecosystems, and protected areas are essential for their conservation. In Brazil, sustainable use protected areas (SU-PAs) allow both the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of natural resources, especially in the Amazon region. However, SU-PAs usually suffer both internal and external pressures, and may be subject to variable degrees of defaunation. We sampled mammals using camera traps in two areas with different forest management and human occupation history in the Tapajós National Forest (TNF), in the western Amazon. Overall, we recorded a rich assemblage of medium and large-sized mammals, though both areas differed in species composition. The area with older and more intense human occupation and forest exploitation had more independent records of generalist species, while large species such as Tapirus terrestris and Panthera onca were recorded exclusively in the area with lower human occupation and no forest management. A comparison of our results with similar studies in other Amazonian sites suggests a reduction in the population size of large-bodied mammals, such as Tapirus terrestris and Tayassu pecari, likely in response to increased human activities. Local differences in human occupation within and between protected areas are common in the Amazon, demanding area-specific actions from public authorities to minimize impacts on wildlife caused by human activities. Specifically in TNF, we recommend long-term monitoring of the responses of mammals to human activities, to better subsidize conservation and management actions.

Estudos de observação e experimentais demonstraram que ninhos de aves menos visíveis apresentam taxas de predação reduzidas. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar diferenças nas taxas de predação entre duas manipulações experimentais de ninhos artificiais no chão (i.e., limpando uma área em torno do ninho artificial ou deixando o mais natural possível), e testar se variáveis ambientais também poderiam afetar as taxas de predação em uma área intacta de floresta amazônica no leste do Brasil. Um modelo generalizado linear foi utilizado para examinar a influência de cinco variáveis (tipo de manipulação, distância perpendicular da trilha principal, área basal total das árvores em volta do local do ninho, densidade de sub-bosque, e quantidade de lianas) sobre as taxas de predação de ninhos. Os resultados do modelo demonstraram que tipo de manipulação foi a única variável que afetou significativamente as taxas de predação de ninhos. Assim, para evitar vieses sistemáticos, a influência da manipulação do local dos ninhos deve ser levada em consideração na realização de experimentos com ninhos artificiais.

Observational and experimental studies have shown that increased concealment of bird nests reduces nest predation rates. The objective of the present study was to evaluate differences in predation rates between two experimental manipulations of artificial ground nests (i.e., clearing an area around the artificial nest or leaving it as natural as possible), and test whether environmental variables also affected nest predation in an undisturbed area of Amazonian forest in eastern Brazil. A generalized linear model was used to examine the influence of five variables (manipulation type, perpendicular distance from the main trail, total basal area of trees surrounding the nest site, understorey density, and liana quantity) on nest predation rates. Model results, showed that manipulation type was the only variable that significantly affected nest predation rates. Thus, to avoid systematic biases, the influence of nest site manipulation must be taken into consideration when conducting experiments with artificial nests.

O estudo objetivou avaliar a riqueza e composição de vertebrados de médio e grande porte em latrinas ativas e inativas de ariranhas [Pteronura brasiliensis (Gmelin, 1788)], em uma Unidade de Conservação de Uso Sustentável na Amazônia Oriental Brasileira. O estudo foi realizado em 45 latrinas ao longo de 230 km nos rios Falsino e Araguari (0°55'N, 51°35'W), sendo que desse total, 24 apresentaram fezes frescas e 21 fezes velhas de ariranhas. De julho a novembro de 2012, cada latrina foi monitorada com uma armadilha fotográfica programada para operar por 24 horas. O esforço de campo resultou em 458,8 armadilhas/dia, sendo 247,5 armadilhas/dia em latrinas com fezes frescas e 211,3 armadilhas/dia com fezes velhas. Foram obtidos registros de 22 espécies de vertebrados. A maior parte das espécies registradas foram mamíferos (n = 13), seguida por aves (n = 6), e répteis (n = 3). As espécies mais frequentemente fotografadas foram paca [Cuniculus paca (Linnaeus, 1766); n = 21], jaguatirica [Leopardus pardalis (Linnaeus, 1758); n =11], juriti-pupu (Leptotila verreauxi Bonaparte, 1855; n = 8), ariranha [Pteronura brasiliensis (Gmelin, 1788); n = 7], e anta [Tapirus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758); n = 6], que foram responsáveis por 55,8% de todos os registros. A maior parte dos registros (69,5%) foram obtidos em latrinas com fezes frescas e o número de espécies foi maior (n = 19) do que os registrados em latrinas com fezes velhas (n = 15). No entanto, a dissimilaridade entre a comunidade de vertebrados entre latrinas com fezes frescas e velhas não diferiu. A média de visitação em latrinas com fezes frescas foi ligeiramente superior do que em latrinas com fezes velhas, embora essa diferença tenha sido apenas marginalmente significativa. Entretanto, houve uma diminuição no número de registros de felinos [Leopardus pardalis, Leopardus wiedii (Schinz, 1821) e Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758)], marginalmente significativo em latrinas com fezes frescas. Dessa forma, a presença de fezes frescas em latrinas ativas de ariranhas parecem aumentar o registro de espécies de vertebrados, sendo especialmente importante para os grupos que apresentam guilda trófica similar.

This study aimed to evaluate the richness and composition of the medium and large sized vertebrates in active and inactive latrines of Giant otters [Pteronura brasiliensis (Gmelin, 1788)] in a Sustainable Use conservation unit in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon. The study was performed in 45 latrines along 230 km of the Falsino and Araguari rivers (0°55ʼN, 51°35ʼW) and from this total, 24 presented fresh feces of Giant otters while 21 presented only old feces. From July to November 2012 each latrine was continuously monitored with a camera trap set to operate for 24 hours. The effort resulted in 458.8 camera trap/days, with 247.5 camera trap/days in latrines with fresh feces and 211.3 camera trap/days with old feces. From this effort we obtained photos from a total of 22 vertebrate species. Most species photographed at latrines were mammals (n = 13), followed by birds (n = 6) and reptiles (n = 3). The most frequently photographed species were paca [Cuniculus paca (Linnaeus, 1766), n = 21], ocelot [Leopardus pardalis (Linnaeus, 1758), n = 11], white-tipped dove (Leptotila verreauxi Bonaparte, 1855, n = 8), giant otter [Pteronura brasiliensis (Gmelin, 1788), n = 7], and tapir [Tapirus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758), n = 6], that accounted for 55.8% of all records. Most records (69.5%) were obtained in latrines with fresh feces and the number of vertebrate species was greater (n = 19) than in latrines with old feces (n = 15). However, the dissimilarity between the vertebrate communities of latrines with fresh and old feces did not differ statistically. However, the mean visitation of vertebrates to latrines with fresh feces was slightly higher than with old feces, although this difference was only marginally significant. There was an increase in records of felids [Leopardus pardalis, Leopardus wiedii (Schinz, 1821), and Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758)] in latrines with old feces, but it was only marginally significant. Thus, the presence of fresh feces of giant otters seems to increase the records of vertebrates, being especially important for groups with similar trophic guild.

Human expansion has drastically affected wildlife species across Amazonian waterways and the continued increase in rural populations across Amazonia is likely to increase pressure on widely exploited chelonian species. The lack of information evaluating determinants of human consumption patterns limits the effective implementation of conservation strategies. Our objective was to determine the relative importance of social, economic, and spatial variables on human exploitation of Podocnemis unifilis Troschel, 1848 around a sustainable-use protected area in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. We conducted interviews with 51 riverine residents to evaluate attitudes towards and exploitation of P. unifilis. We used multimodel inference to evaluate 12 working hypothesis predicting social, economic, and spatial influences on the occurrence and intensity of P. unifilis egg consumption. None of the respondents reported catching and/or eating adult P. unifilis and none sold adults or eggs during the previous year. Although the majority (58.8%) of respondents had eaten P. unifilis eggs during the previous year and the species was occasionally caught in fishing nets, P. unifilis was rarely cited as a liked or disliked species. Our information theoretic analysis showed that spatial hypotheses were the most strongly supported whereas social and economic hypotheses were only weakly supported in explaining if and how many P. unifilis eggs had been consumed by riverine residents during the previous year. Our findings suggest that current Amazonian development patterns may be associated with reduced consumption of adult P. unifilis, but consumption of eggs together with other indirect anthropogenic perturbations continue to threaten remaining P. unifilis populations.

Nós aplicamos técnicas de amostragem complementares para obter uma lista de espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte no Núcleo Caraguatatuba, Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar, Brasil. As amostragens de campo realizaram-se nos meses de Maio e Setembro de 2011. Utilizou-se, censo ao longo de transectos (212,4 km), armadilhas fotográficas (223,2 armadilhas-dias) e armadilhas de pegadas (478 armadilhas-dias). Foram obtidos registros de 18 espécies, pertencentes a 14 famílias e oito ordens. Nós registramos a presença de sete espécies consideradas ameaçadas no Estado de São Paulo, incluindo primatas (Brachyteles arachnoides), Artiodactyla (Mazama americana e Tayassu pecari), Carnivora (Leopardus pardalis, Leopardus tigrinus e Puma concolor) e Perissodactyla (Tapirus terrestris). Com base em numa extrapolação da riqueza de espécies ("First order jackknife") nós prevemos que existem entre 19 e 32 espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte no Núcleo. Nosso "Mammal Priority Index" classificou o Núcleo Caraguatatuba como uma área de importância "média" para a conservação de mamíferos de médio e grande porte na Mata Atlântica. Combinado com o número e a diversidade de espécies registradas, nossos resultados demonstram que este Núcleo é uma área importante para a conservação de mamíferos no Estado.

We applied complementary survey techniques to obtain a baseline species list of mid and large bodied mammals in Núcleo Caraguatatuba, Serra do Mar State park, Brazil. Between May and September 2011 we surveyed the community of mid and large bodied mammals using diurnal line transect census (212.4 km), camera-traps (223.2 camera-trap days) and track-stations (478 track-station days). A total of 18 species were recorded from 14 families in eight orders. We recorded the presence of seven species considered threatened in the State of São Paulo, including Primates (Brachyteles arachnoides), Artiodactyla (Mazama cf. americana and Tayassu pecari), Carnivora (Leopardus pardalis, Leopardus tigrinus and Puma concolor) and Perissodactyla (Tapirus terrestris). Based on extrapolated (First order jackknife) species richness estimates we predict that there are between 19 and 32 species of mid and large bodied mammals in the Núcleo. Our revised Mammal Priority Index ranked Núcleo Caraguatatuba as being of medium overall importance for the conservation of mid and large bodied mammals in the Atlantic Forest. Combined with the number and diversity of species recorded, our results demonstrate that this Núcleo is an important area for mammal conservation.

Scat-detection dogs have been used to locate feces of rare and elusive species across tropical biomes. However their detection efficiency in relation to human observers has rarely been evaluated. In this study, we evaluated the ability of a scat detection dog to locate feces in comparison with human researchers. Human researchers and a scat detection dog surveyed for deer (Mazama spp.) feces in dense ombrofilous Atlantic forest in the Paranapiacaba continuum, SP, Brazil. A controlled experiment was used to assess the maximum effective perpendicular distance from a transect search line that the dog could detect a Mazama spp fecal sample. Results from a linear regression model revealed that the maximum effective perpendicular distance from a transect search line that the dog could detect a scat was 7.2 m. The detection success from our surveys in the Atlantic forest was zero for humans and 0.15 samples/ha or 0.20 samples/km walked for the dog team. Our results demonstrated the importance of scat-detection dogs for non invasive sampling and provide data relevant for the design of future studies.

Understanding what influences the activity of organisms is important for both ecological understanding and species conservation. Using data from 2,707 camera trap days distributed across 24 forest sites, we present quantitative analyses of the activity pattern of Cuniculus paca (Linnaeus, 1766) in southern Amazonia. We compared the activity pattern of this species across four designated subsets of the 24-hours diel cycle (dawn, dusk, day and night). Using linear regression models we tested the influence of season, temperature and rainfall on the activity patterns of C. paca (paca). We also evaluated the nocturnal photos of paca (N = 111) as a function of the degree of lunar illumination in order to test the prediction that pacas minimize their activity during moon phase when illumination is brighter. Pacas were not recorded during the day but were active at dawn, dusk and night time. We found differences in the influence of the abiotic variables on the nocturnal activity of pacas in the study area. There was no significant difference between the observed (expressed as the frequency of total counts of independent photos over the five classes of lunar illumination) and the expected activity of pacas, based on the frequency of days in the lunar cycle with different classes of lunar illumination, whereas lunar illumination had a weak negative influence on the timing of paca activity (i.e. pacas were active closer to sunset with increasing lunar illumination). However, the timing of nocturnal activity in pacas was not influenced by season, temperature or rainfall. Our findings highlight the ecological plasticity of this Neotropical rodent which has a key function in the maintenance of Neotropical forests.

Previous studies have demonstrated that river-based surveys can provide an inexpensive source of information for neotropical zoologists, yet little information is available to inform the application of this technique for the long term monitoring of neotropical turtle species. We aimed to fill this gap by presenting an assessment of data collected during 333 river surveys over 50 months along rivers in a newly protected area in the Peruvian Amazon. A total of 14,138 basking Podocnemis unifilis Troschel, 1848 were recorded during 13,510 km of river-based surveys. We used generalized additive models (GAMs) to explore the influence of a series of abiotic and seasonal variables on the recorded abundances at two temporal scales: monthly and per trip. Our analysis revealed that there was a significant increase in turtle abundances during the study period and we also found a significant seasonal periodicity in monthly abundances. Abiotic factors strongly influenced trip level abundances, with more individuals per kilometer recorded during sunny days in the dry season, with temperatures between 25 and 30°C. The results demonstrate that turtle populations are increasing following the establishment of the protected area and that river-based surveys are likely to be more effective when carried out within a limited set of key abiotic conditions.