Abstract It is known that neuronal maturation after birth lasts approximately twenty years and requires a large amount of energy. If a pregnancy occurs before maturation, the energy must be distributed between the mother and the offspring, having an effect on the anatomical and functional processes of the brain. Therefore, the electrical activity of the frontal cortex was compared, as well as the performance of its functions and maternal care in adolescents and young people (less than six months after giving birth). The NEUROPSI test (attention and coding) and a maternal care instrument were applied to primiparous adolescents and young people; electroencephalographic recordings were performed on a sample of this population. Significant differences are observed in the coding and attention processes (F= 4.5, α= 0.03*; F= 79.7, α= 0.00**), and a significant correlation between attention and maternal care (health and affection categories) as well as health care coding. The electrical activity of the frontal lobe was slower in primiparous adolescents as well as maternal care behaviors. The above is related to delay in the neuronal maturation of adolescent mothers.

Resumen Se sabe que la maduración neuronal tras el nacimiento dura aproximadamente veinte años y necesita gran cantidad de energía. Si ocurre un embarazo antes de la maduración, la energía debe repartirse entre la madre y la cría, teniendo efecto en los procesos anatómicos y funcionales del cerebro. Por ello, se comparó la actividad eléctrica de la corteza frontal, así como el desempeño de sus funciones y cuidados maternales en adolescentes y jóvenes (con menos de seis meses posteriores al parto). Se aplicó el test NEUROPSI (atención y codificación) y un instrumento de cuidados maternales a primíparas adolescentes y jóvenes; a una muestra de esta población se les realizó registros electroencefalográficos. Se observan diferencias significativas en los procesos de codificación y atención (F= 4.5, α= 0.03*; F=79.7, α= 0.00**), y una correlación significativa entre la atención y el cuidado maternal (categorías de salud y cariño), así como de la codificación sobre el cuidado de la salud. La actividad eléctrica del lóbulo frontal fue más lenta en las adolescentes primíparas, así como las conductas de cuidado maternal. Lo anterior se relaciona con una menor maduración neuronal de madres adolescentes.

Resumen El constructo de desvinculación moral tiene implicaciones muy importantes en el estudio de diversos fenómenos psicosociales. Ante la ausencia del análisis de las propiedades psicométricas de la escala de desvinculación moral de Bandura en población mexicana, el objetivo de esta investigación fue la obtención de evidencias de validez factorial y confiabilidad de dicha escala. Como hipótesis central de esta investigación, se consideró que la escala podría mantener las dimensiones estructurales reportadas en la versión original, así como la fusión de los ocho mecanismos propuestos por Bandura en un factor de segundo orden. La muestra estuvo conformada por 480 estudiantes universitarios de tres instituciones públicas de nivel superior. Los resultados mostraron que el modelo con una estructura de primer orden en su versión adaptada al español, incluyendo los 32 reactivos propuestos originalmente, presentó características psicométricas adecuadas; sin embargo, el modelo de segundo orden mostró una mejor variabilidad observada en las puntuaciones de 27 reactivos. Además, todos los reactivos tuvieron un valor adecuado con respecto a los índices de bondad de ajuste, así como una suficiente variabilidad explicada tanto en las mujeres como en los hombres. El análisis de fiabilidad de esta escala indica que posee una elevada consistencia interna (α = .89). Con base en estas evidencias, se concluyó que esta escala es un instrumento válido y fiable para evaluar la desvinculación moral en la población general.

Abstract The construct of moral disengagement has relevant consequences in the study of several psychosocial phenomena. Due to the lack of the psychometric characteristics of the Bandura’s Moral Disengagement Scale among Mexican populations, the purpose of this research was to examine the scale’s factorial validity and reliability. As a core hypothesis, it was considered that this scale could keep the structural dimensions reported in the original version as well as the combination of the eight mechanisms proposed by Bandura in a second order factor. The sample included 480 undergraduate students from three public universities. Results showed that the model with a first order factor structure in its version adapted to Spanish, including the original 32 items, revealed acceptable psychometric characteristics; however, the second order model showed a better variability in the scores of the 27 items. All items had an appropriate value regarding the goodness-of-fit indices, as well as an appropriate explained variability both in women and in men. The reliability of this scale revealed an internal consistency (α = .89). In conclusion, this scale is a valid and reliable instrument to measure moral disengagement in the general population.

Resumen El confinamiento ocasionado por la pandemia del COVID-19 ha impactado en la vida de los estudiantes universitarios en todo el mundo. Conocer sus efectos en la salud mental y el comportamiento será una prioridad en los siguientes años. En este contexto, el objetivo de la presente investigación fue analizar por primera vez las relaciones directas e indirectas entre la experiencia de soledad, las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas (rumiación, evitación, supresión, catastrofización y autoculpa) y la ansiedad en una muestra de universitarios mexicanos. Con base en él, se hipotetizó que las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas mediarían la relación entre la soledad y la ansiedad. Para lograr este propósito se especificó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. Un total de 824 estudiantes universitarios participaron en la presente investigación. Los resultados mostraron que los datos se ajustaron de manera adecuada al modelo estructural especificado. Por otra parte, también se encontró que la soledad tuvo un efecto directo que no fue estadísticamente significativo con la ansiedad. En conclusión, estos hallazgos revelan la presencia de un efecto de mediación al mostrar que la soledad estuvo relacionada indirectamente con la ansiedad por su relación con las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas. Con ello, al analizar la función mediadora de las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas se aportaron, por primera vez en México, nuevos elementos que permiten conocer con mayor profundidad los efectos directos e indirectos de estos tres constructos.

Abstract The lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the lives of undergraduate students around the world. Knowing its effects on mental health and behavior will be a priority for years to come. Due to the multiple negative effects that confinement by the COVID-19 pandemic has brought, this study aims to provide new scientific evidence that will allow a better understanding of the effects of the experience of loneliness caused by this pandemic. Based on the procedural model of emotion regulation created by Gross, the objective of this research was to analyze the direct and indirect relations between the experience of loneliness, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies (rumination, avoidance, suppression, catastrophizing, and self-blame) and anxiety in a sample of Mexican undergraduate students. Based on this goal, it was hypothesized that maladaptive emotion regulation strategies would mediate the relation between loneliness and anxiety. To achieve this purpose, a total of 824 undergraduate students participated in the present research. In addition to providing their sociodemographic data, they answered the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, the Cognitive-Behavioral Avoidance Scale, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the Beck Anxiety Inventory. In order to carry out the mediating analysis, a structural equation model was created which included three latent variables (loneliness, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and anxiety). This model was tested using the Lavaan software. The indirect effects were analyzed using the bootstrapping method. The results showed that maladaptive emotional regulation strategies had a mediating role which was positive and significant in the relation between loneliness and anxiety. Regarding the measurement model, confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the measurement model comprising the three latent variables. Results showed that the measurement model fit the observed data appropriately. Furthermore, with the purpose of examining the validity of the measurement model, the average variance extracted and square root of the average variance extracted were calculated. Findings indicated that the average variance extracted for each construct was higher than all the squared correlations involving that construct. This confirmed the discriminant validity of all variables of study. Regarding the structural model, results showed acceptable data fit. The model explained 48 % of the variance in anxiety. The structural equation analysis revealed that loneliness was related positively with maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Similarly, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies were associated positively with anxiety. Likewise, it was possible to confirm the main hypothesis of this study which stated that maladaptive emotion regulation strategies would mediate the influence of loneliness on anxiety among Mexican university students. Finally, it was confirmed that loneliness had a nonsignificant direct effect on anxiety. Regarding the contribution of each of the five maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, rumination had a significant function in the mediating process showing that loneliness had an impact on anxiety via the continuous thoughts that participants had about their own emotions. In turn, because of the strategy of catastrophizing, participants intensified their thoughts and emotions waiting for the worse scenario which in turn increased their levels of anxiety. Likewise, the strategies of avoidance and suppression had also a significant contribution on the mediating role of maladaptive strategies. Finally, the strategy of self-blame was a significant contribution to the mediating function. Therefore, with the purpose of controlling emotions associated with loneliness, it was possible that participants could blame themselves as a mechanism to regulate their emotions. In conclusion, these findings reveal the presence of a mediating effect by showing that loneliness was indirectly related to anxiety via its relation with maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.

Abstract The consumption of anabolic-androgenic steroid substances (AAS) is not limited to use in professional sports, it has now been extended to gym users who practice sports for aesthetic purposes. However, little is known about its consequences on cognitive function due to its prolonged consumption and in high doses. Therefore, a systematic review of the studies carried out during the last decade (2011-2021) was carried out. Seven articles were included for review, highlighting that gym users with long-term or substance-dependent use of AAS presenting deficits in certain cognitive functions (memory and executive functions) compared to non-users, short-term users, or not dependents. Although more research is needed on the comprehensive evaluation of the different cognitive processes, the results of these studies offer important evidence so that health professionals, sport sciences, fitness or sports trainers, gym users and the public in general can attend to, intervene or prevent possible consequences.

Resumen El consumo de sustancias esteroides anabólico-androgénicas (EAA) no se limita a su uso en el deporte profesional, actualmente se ha extendido a usuarios de gimnasio que practican deporte con fines estéticos. Sin embargo, poco se sabe de sus consecuencias en el funcionamiento cognoscitivo por su consumo prolongado y en dosis elevadas. Por lo tanto, se realizó una revisión sistemática de los estudios llevados a cabo durante la última década (2011-2021). Fueron incluidos siete artículos para su revisión de los que se destaca que, los usuarios de gimnasio de consumo prolongado o dependiente a sustancias EAA presentan déficits en ciertas funciones cognoscitivas (memoria y funciones ejecutivas) en comparación con usuarios no consumidores, consumidores a corto plazo o no dependientes. Aunque es necesario que se lleven a cabo investigaciones que realicen una evaluación integral de los diferentes procesos cognoscitivos, los resultados de estos estudios ofrecen evidencia importante para que profesionales de la salud, ciencias del deporte, entrenadores fitness o deportivos, usuarios de gimnasio y el público en general puedan atender, intervenir o prevenir las posibles consecuencias.

Resumen La violencia en el noviazgo es un fenómeno multifactorial que requiere de estudios que profundicen respecto a los efectos que tienen las creencias culturales en el comportamiento tanto del agresor como de la víctima. Teniendo esto en cuenta, el objetivo de la presente investigación fue determinar la relación entre las creencias acerca de la violencia y la prevalencia de la violencia en el noviazgo. Para ello, se contó con una muestra de 420 estudiantes de dos universidades públicas mexicanas que respondieron el Inventario de creencias acerca de la violencia hacia la esposa, el Inventario de conflictos en las relaciones de noviazgo, y un cuestionario de información sociodemográfica. Los datos recolectados fueron examinados por medio de un análisis de correlación canónica, y los resultados mostraron que el modelo en general fue estadísticamente significativo (Wilks X = .654, F(20, 677.54) = 4.626,p < .05); que el tamaño del efecto del modelo general fue de .346, lo que indica que este explicó el 34.6 % de la varianza compartida por los dos conjuntos de variables; y que, específicamente en la primera función, el coeficiente de mayor magnitud fue el de la variable de justificación de la violencia (r2 s = 76.2; h 2 = 90.0), seguido por la del apoyo que se le puede brindar a la víctima (r2 s = 57.1; h2 = 94.5).

Abstract Dating violence is a multifactorial phenomenon that requires in-depth studies regarding the effects that cultural beliefs have on the behavior of both the aggressor and the victim. With this in mind, the objective of this research was to determine the relationship between beliefs about violence and the prevalence of dating violence. To this end, a sample of 420 students from two Mexican public universities answered the Inventory of Beliefs about Wife Violence, the Inventory of Conflicts in Dating Relationships, and a sociodemographic information questionnaire. The data collected were examined through a canonical correlation analysis, and the results showed that the overall model was statistically significant (Wilks X = .654, F (20, 677.54) = 4.626, p < .05); that the effect size of the overall model was .346, indicating that it explained 34. 6 % of the variance shared by the two sets of variables; and that, specifically in the first function, the coefficient of greatest magnitude was that of the variable of justification of the violence (r2 s = 76.2; h2 = 90.0), followed by that of the support that can be given to the victim (r2 s = 57.1; h2 = 94.5).

Abstract The effects of family of origin violence and intimate partner violence have been extensively documented; however, very few studies have examined the interaction with emotion regulation strategies. Thus, the objective of this research was to analyze whether different types of emotion regulation strategies, both adaptive and maladaptive, mediate the relationship between family of origin violence and intimate partner violence in the Mexican population. A total of 838 participants (45.9% men and 54.1% women) responded to instruments addressing family of origin violence, emotion regulation strategies, and intimate partner violence. The results revealed that both structural models were significant. For women, the model showed an adequate fit X 2 (11, N = 838) = 22.75, p = .288, GFI = .95, AGFI = .91, NFI = .98, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .05. Likewise, we found similar indexes for men X2 (11, N = 838) = 28.20, p = .348, GFI = .97, AGFI = .93, NFI = .97, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .04. Specifically, the direct effects of adaptive strategies on intimate partner violence were statistically significant. Meanwhile, the direct effects of family of origin violence on maladaptive emotion regulation strategies were significant, as were the direct effects of maladaptive strategies on intimate partner violence. In turn, the indirect effects of family of-origin violence were significantly related to intimate partner violence via maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. In addition, the results clearly showed that men reported higher levels of aggression against women. Finally, regarding the selection of emotion regulation strategies, while women employed more adaptive emotion regulation, men showed a more definite tendency to use maladaptive emotion regulation.

Resumen Ser madre es considerada una de las experiencias más significativas en la vida de una mujer. A pesar de su importancia en la sociedad, las mujeres mexicanas tienen que enfrentar múltiples desafíos dentro y fuera del hogar. El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer los efectos de la depresión, la violencia de pareja y los factores socioculturales presentes en México y los Estados Unidos en la experiencia de ser madre. El discurso de las participantes permitió identificar cinco temas eje: sus propias percepciones como madres, la influencia cultural, el involucramiento parental, los recursos que poseen y las barreras que enfrentan. La principal diferencia entre ambos grupos radica en el apoyo social que diversas organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales proporcionan a las madres inmigrantes en los Estados Unidos.

Abstract Being a mother is one of the most important experiences for many women. In spite of this fact, Mexican women have to face multiple factors affecting her motherhood. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of depression, intimate partner violence as well as the sociocultural factors in Mexico and the United States in the experience of being a mother. In the narratives of these participants, we found five main themes: perceptions, cultural influence, involvement, resources, and barriers. The main difference between both groups was the social support that many governmental agencies and NGO’s in the United States provide to immigrant mothers.

Resumo Havendo poucos estudos que empregam as análises de trajetórias (Path Analysis) para examinar a magnitude dos fatores familiares e sua relação com a violência escolar, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi analisar os efeitos dos conflitos familiares, a coesão, a adaptabilidade, o apoio, a moralidade, a organização familiar, as normas e a comunicação na violência escolar. As análises de trajetórias revelaram que as normas familiares junto com os valores ético-morais que se fomentam no lar tiveram maior impacto nos atos de violência perpetrados pelas mulheres. Também o apoio parental e a comunicação pais-filhos foram os fatores que mais influenciaram na experiência de vitimização para as adolescentes. Por outro lado, para os estudantes masculinos, os conflitos que se geram ao interior da família tiveram a relação mais forte com a violência escolar. Da mesma maneira, a comunicação com seus pais, a coesão familiar e o apoio parental foram os três preditores mais importantes na experiência de vitimização.

Abstract Few studies have used path analysis in order to explore the magnitude of family factors associated with violence in schools. With the purpose of filling this gap in the literature, the objective of this research was to examine the effects of family conflicts, cohesion, adaptability, support, morality, family organization, norms, and communication in bullying. Path analysis showed that family norms and ethic-moral values promoted at home had the main impact on bullying among women. Likewise, parental support and parent-child communication were the factors that most influenced the experience of victimization among women. On the other hand, for male students, family conflicts had the strongest relationship with bullying. In the same way, communication with their parents, family cohesion and parental support were the three most important predictors in the experience of victimization.

Resumen Habiendo pocos estudios que han empleado los análisis de trayectorias (Path Analysis) para examinar la magnitud de los factores familiares y su relación con la violencia escolar, el objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar los efectos de los conflictos familiares, la cohesión, la adaptabilidad, el apoyo, la moralidad, la organización familiar, las normas y la comunicación en la violencia escolar. Los análisis de trayectorias revelaron que las normas familiares junto con los valores ético-morales que se fomentan en el hogar tuvieron el mayor impacto en los actos de violencia perpetrados por las mujeres. Así mismo, el apoyo parental y la comunicación padres-hijos fueron los factores que más influyeron en la experiencia de victimización para las adolescentes. Por otra parte, para los estudiantes varones, los conflictos que se generan al interior de la familia tuvieron la relación más fuerte con la violencia escolar. De la misma manera, la comunicación con sus padres, la cohesión familiar y el apoyo parental fueron los tres predictores más importantes en la experiencia de victimización.

The process of immigration involves multiple challenges and barriers as well as benefits and opportunities. Each year, innumerable Latin American families immigrate to the United States of America seeking employment, medical care, or education for their children. The purpose of this qualitative research was to explore the effects of the process of acculturation in the parental involvement and maternal self-efficacy among Latin American immigrant mothers living in the United States. In order to achieve this objective, four research questions were formulated: (1) Whatis the description that Latin American immigrant women express about their own process of acculturation? (2) What are the changes these women have experienced during their acculturation process to the United States of America? (3) How Latin American immigrant mothers are involved in the academic, emotional, social, and behavioral development of their children (4) What are the perceptions that Latin American immigrant women have about their abilities and resources as mothers? In the present study, 14 women from five different Latin American countries participated in qualitative interviews. Participants' narratives were analyzed using the Consensual Qualitative Research method proposed by Hill, Thompson and Williams. After having analyzed all transcripts, five main themes were identified: (1) Adaptation, (2) Expectations, (3) Challenges, (4) Benefits, and (5) Resources. Results shows that participants had to adapt their behavior and ideas to the current American traditions, laws, and norms. Regarding participants' expectations, they talked about how one of their main expectations was to obtain an employment with which they could satisfy their basic needs and provide a good educational level to their children. Immigrants experience multiple obstacles; for instance, lack of employment and health services, legal status, changes in family functioning, separation from family, discrimination, fear of deportation, intergenerational conflicts, and language proficiency. Besides these external barriers and challenges, Latin American immigrants are affected by internal challenges with possible negative consequences, such as intimate partner violence, despondent moods, loneliness, feeling of inadequacy, gender inequality, stress, anxiety, and alcoholism. In this study, the main barriers these participants had to cope were their immigration status, separation from their families, and language proficiency. In contrast, these participants had several benefits as a result of their decision to immigrate to the United States of America such as economic resources, their children's education, and professional information they received that helped them improve their maternal skills. In consequence, they have been able to develop their maternal skills and spend quality time with their children. All participants in this research emphasized that these benefits have been determinant for their parental involvement. The last factor related to their maternal experience was the resources they have found in the United States of American. Participants talked about the support they have received from the American government, formal and informal knowledge about how to become a better mother, and the social support provided by other Latin American families. In general terms, immigrants experience better life conditions when they have a network of relatives and friends previously established in the receiving country. Consequently, they have more opportunities for a successful relocation in the new region. The importance of social support is related to the presence of these networks which provide any kind of support when necessary. In particular, due to this support, these participants have had a better adaptation to their new life. In conclusion, this research reveals that in spite of multiple challenges Latin American immigrants have to cope, all participants concluded that after immigrating to the United States of America their competence and involvement as mothers have increased.

La inmigración a los Estados Unidos conlleva para las familias latinoamericanas una serie de desafíos y adversidades así como múltiples oportunidades y beneficios. Desde esta perspectiva, el objetivo de la investigación que se informa fue analizar el impacto que tiene este proceso de adaptación en el involucramiento parental y la autoeficacia materna de las mujeres inmigrantes latinoamericanas que residen en los Estados Unidos. En este estudio participaron 14 mujeres provenientes de cinco países latinoamericanos. Los principales hallazgos muestran que las participantes tuvieron que adaptarse a las tradiciones, leyes y normas de convivencia imperantes en los Estados Unidos. Con respecto a sus expectativas, las participantes describieron el deseo de obtener un trabajo bien remunerado para poder satisfacer las necesidades básicas de su familia así como proveer a sus hijos de una buena educación. Entre las principales adversidades se encuentran el idioma, el estatus migratorio y la separación de sus familiares. En contraste, diversos beneficios tales como la educación de los hijos y la información profesional que recibieron han sido determinantes en su involucramiento parental. De la misma manera, las participantes enfatizaron la importancia de diversos recursos que han encontrado en el país de residencia entre los que se encuentran el apoyo recibido del gobierno norteamericano, los cursos en los que han participado y el apoyo social brindado por otras familias latinoamericanas. Los resultados de la investigación permiten concluir que a pesar de los muchos obstáculos a los que se enfrentan, todas las participantes mencionaron contundentemente que el haber inmigrado a los Estados Unidos ha enriquecido su experiencia como madres.

Abstract: The obstacles found on the route towards the United States and the adaptation to the American norms and customs entails a big challenge for Hispanic immigrants. The objective of this qualitative study was to investigate based on a phenomenological approach the meaning of the life experiences of eight women of Hispanic origin who are living in the Dallas metroplex in Texas. In order to achieve this goal, a semi-structured interview protocol was designed whose purpose was to explore the motives they had to leave their countries of origin and describe the main experiences they have lived in their own process of acculturation. In the participants experiences, specific factors strongly related to this process were identified, such as leaving their native countries in search of better economic conditions in the United States, feelings of nostalgia and sadness, the fear of being deported, the adaptation to the American culture, their children’s bilingualism, the continuous support of their family and friends, the possibility of working on the workforce, the barrier of English language and contact with other Latinos. As it was confirmed in this study, the presence of these factors is a key element for understanding the vicissitudes associated with the life of immigrants of Hispanic origin once they cross the border.

Resumen: Los obstáculos encontrados en el camino hacia los Estados Unidos y la adaptación a las normas y costumbres norteamericanas representan un enorme desafío para las inmigrantes hispanas. El objetivo de este estudio cualitativo fue investigar desde un enfoque fenomenológico el significado de las experiencias de vida de ocho mujeres de origen hispano quienes residen en el Metroplex de Dallas, Texas. Para lograr dicho cometido, se diseñó un protocolo de entrevista semi-estructurado cuya finalidad fue explorar los motivos que las llevaron a dejar sus países de origen y describir las principales experiencias que han vivido en su propio proceso de aculturación. En la narrativa de las participantes se identificaron factores fuertemente relacionados con este proceso entre los que destacaron: la búsqueda de mejores condiciones económicas en los Estados Unidos, los sentimientos de nostalgia y tristeza, el miedo a ser deportadas, la adaptación a la cultura norteamericana, el hecho de que sus hijos son bilingües, el continuo apoyo de su familia y amigos, la posibilidad de trabajar en la fuerza laboral, la barrera del idioma inglés y el contacto con otros latinos. Como quedó constatado en este estudio, la presencia de estos factores es un elemento clave para entender las vicisitudes que conlleva la vida de las inmigrantes de origen hispano una vez que logran cruzar la frontera.

Since migration and the resulting acculturation process are such complex, multifaceted phenomena, the aim of this article is to analyze the economic, social, political, and cultural factors involved. To achieve this, the author examines theoretically different empirical studies and papers related to the migratory experience. The article also describes the main reasons why Hispanic immigrants leave their countries of origin, as well as the main factors linked to the acculturation process and the acculturative stress immigrants experience during their stay in the United States.

Siendo la migración y el proceso posterior de aculturación fenómenos tan complejos y multifacéticos, el objetivo de este artículo es analizar los factores económicos, sociales, políticos y culturales inmersos en éstos. Para lograr dicho cometido, aquí se examinaron teóricamente distintos estudios empíricos y trabajos existentes relacionados con la experiencia migratoria. A su vez, este artículo describe los principales motivos que llevan a los inmigrantes hispanos a abandonar sus países de origen, además de que se analizan los principales factores relacionados con el proceso de aculturación y el estrés aculturativo que viven los inmigrantes en su estadía en Estados Unidos.