ABSTRACT Kaolinite is the main clay mineral in most soils around the world and has been widely used for industrial purposes. This research aimed to study chemical, morphological and crystallographic characteristics of kaolinite, and establish the origin of kaolinitic samples on Serra do Mar and kaolinitic layers on peatlands, located at Southern Brazil. Samples were collected on different geomorphological positions: two samples at Serra do Mar (kaolinitic saprolite – SAP, and kaolinitic layers - KL); and two cores at the peatland with Sapric Histosols from Quaternary sedimentary basin. Granulometry and total organic carbon (TOC) were determined in soil samples. Kaolinite in silt and clay fractions was studied by chemical extractions, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal analysis (DTA/TG), and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy – SEM/EDS. Chemical and mineralogical characteristics of kaolinite were divided into two groups, according to the particle size and the location of the deposit in the relief. Silt fraction: i) SAP – genesis mainly derived from mica weathering; ii) peatland, containing pseudomorph crystals smaller than those found in Serra do Mar; Clay fraction: i) Serra do Mar – there was a larger contribution of K-feldspar weathering in the genesis of kaolinite from KL in relation to SAP; ii) peatland – the stronger weathering and the hydromorphic conditions resulted in less neoformed crystalline kaolinites. For both environments, the substitution of Al3+ by Fe3+ into the octahedral sheet led to a reduction in the mineral thickness and also increased the occurrence of structural deformations in clay kaolinite. Kaolinite in peatland is a combination of the following genesis processes: transportation from Serra do Mar (mainly in the silt fraction) and; formation in situ through neogenesis process (dominant in the clay fraction). purposes peatlands Brazil positions KL) basin TOC (TOC extractions Xray X ray XRD, XRD , (XRD) DTA/TG, DTATG DTA/TG DTA TG (DTA/TG) SEMEDS SEM EDS SEM/EDS groups relief fraction i ii Kfeldspar K feldspar kaolinites environments Al3 Al Fe3 Fe processes dominant fraction. . (XRD (DTA/TG

ABSTRACT The occurrence of dark subsurface horizons rich in organic matter (OM) associated with polychrome in the B horizon (yellowish over reddish hue) is common in soils from Southern Brazil. The formation of these horizons and the combination with such morphological attributes has not been properly documented, and neither has the cause effect relationship. Four soil profiles with such sombric-like horizons with a yellowish color at the upper part of the B horizon over red subsoil were studied in Southern Brazil. Results from micromorphology, extractable sesquioxide minerals, clay mineralogy and isomorphic substitution of Fe by Al in iron minerals showed that melanization, xanthization, bioturbation, moderate shrinking/swelling and moderate ferralitization were the most evident pedogenetic processes in role. Xanthization is closely related to the sombric-like horizon formation. In the studied area the findings demonstrated that no clay and OM illuviation had taken place. Therefore, the classification of these soils was revisited, so as to take into account the processes that underlie their genesis with emphasis on xanthization, clay illuviation and soil aggregation. The results suggest that the sombric horizon may need redefinition, unless profiles can be found in which illuviation of clay and/or OM can be proven.

ABSTRACT The simultaneous occurrence of high levels of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and alkalinity in soils imposes restrictions on plant development and affects physical properties such as porosity, bulk density, permeability, and hydraulic conductivity. Although sodic soils are frequent in the flood plain of the São Lourenço River, northern Pantanal, Brazil, few studies focus on their formation and classification, especially with regard to specific processes and detailed classification into lower categorical levels by the different systems available. The aim of this study was to identify the predominant pedogenetic processes occurring in sodic soils of the flood plain of the São Lourenço River to understand their genesis and assess how taxonomic classification systems contemplate the variations in soil properties. Five profiles were selected in sites with different progressive stages of dissection from erosion (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5). At each site, a pit was dug for morphological description of the profiles and for collecting samples for chemical, particle size, mineralogical, micromorphological, and chronological analyses. Each profile was classified according to the Soil Taxonomy, World Reference Base (WRB), and Brazilian Soil Classification System (SiBCS/Sistema Brasileiro de Classificação de Solos). Argilluviation is the predominant process, with a localized and intense ferrolysis action in the E/Bt transition zones in profile P5. Soils showed signs of lithologic discontinuity. This makes it difficult to distinguish how much of the textural gradient is inherited from fluvial sedimentation processes and how much is the result of pedogenetic processes. In the most advanced stage of alteration, P5 had a paler color, thickening of the E horizon, and an abrupt and irregular transition entering the Bt horizon in the form of a “tongue”. When passing from the most preserved to the most eroded area, ferrolysis becomes more intense in the E/Bt transition, the electrical conductivity values decrease, and the ESP values increase, suggesting the sodification process. Under Soil Taxonomy criteria, P5 was classified as Natraqualf and the other profiles were classified as Natrudalf; under the WRB, however, all profiles were classified as Solonetz. The SiBCS exhibited variation at the Order level, with P5 classified as Planossolo and the others as Luvissolo. Despite an indication of different processes at the Order level, the SiBCS does not yet contemplate the sodic character in the studied Luvissolos. We propose inclusion of the sodic character at the Great Group level, as has already occurred with other SiBCS classes.

O Pantanal caracteriza-se por ser uma planície inundável quaternária, com sedimentação predominantemente na forma de leques aluviais. Na evolução geomorfológica e sedimentar, é inerente a esse sistema deposicional o processo de avulsão, cuja dinâmica, associada aos fluxos de águas superficiais de cheias, impõe diferenças sedimentares importantes nessa planície. O entendimento e a diferenciação desses dois eventos podem ajudar na compreensão da variabilidade dos atributos e da distribuição dos solos associados a esses processos sedimentares. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a gênese de solos do Pantanal Norte que apresentam contrastes texturais em profundidade e sua relação com a dinâmica do sistema deposicional. Quatro perfis foram estudados na região de Barão de Melgaço, MT (RPPN SESC Pantanal), dois próximos ao rio Cuiabá (AP1 e AP4) e dois próximos ao rio São Lourenço (AP10 e AP11). No AP11, os horizontes apresentam contrastes granulométricos desde a base do perfil até a superfície. No AP1, AP4 e AP10, os horizontes sobrejacentes a uma camada arenosa possuem granulometria semelhante entre si, principalmente na distribuição de areia. No primeiro caso, os fluxos de cheias, ou seja, de águas superficiais, parecem ter originado os horizontes e as camadas contrastantes na textura; no segundo, a avulsão é o processo mais evidente. Dessa forma, as duas vias podem formar solos com contrastes texturais e é possível distingui-los no campo pela morfologia, pois possuem peculiaridades que estão associadas aos processos sedimentares responsáveis pelos depósitos.

The Pantanal region can be characterized as a quaternary floodplain with predominant sedimentation in the form of alluvial fans. In the geomorphologic and sedimentary evolution, the avulsion process is inherent to this depositional system and its dynamics, together with surface water floods, influence soil sedimentation on this plain. The knowledge and differentiation of these two events can contribute to a better understanding of the variability of soil properties and distribution under the influence of these sedimentation processes. Therefore, this study investigated the genesis of soils in the Northern Pantanal with textural contrasts in deeper horizons and their relationship with the depositional system dynamics. We analyzed four soil profiles in the region of Barão de Melgaço, Mato Grosso State, Brazil (RPPN SESC Pantanal). Two profiles were sampled near the Rio Cuiabá (AP1 and AP4) and two near the Rio São Lourenço (AP10 and AP11). In AP11, the horizons contrast in particle size between the profile basis and the surface. In AP1, AP4 and AP10, the horizons overlaying the sand layer have similar particle size properties, mainly in terms of sand distribution. In the first case, floods (surface water) seem to have originated the horizons and layers with contrasting texture. In the second case, avulsion is the most pronounced process. Therefore, the two modes can form soils with contrasting texture that are discriminable by soil morphology, based on the distinct features associated to the specific sedimentation processes.

As características físicas e químicas do solo são fortemente influenciadas pela sua constituição mineralógica, as quais, mesmo a curtas distâncias horizontais, podem apresentar alta variabilidade espacial, fato que pode ser descrito mais adequadamente pela associação entre a estatística descritiva clássica e a geoestatística. O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar a variabilidade espacial de atributos mineralógicos da fração argila de solos da Formação Guabirotuba, região metropolitana de Curitiba (PR), por meio da estatística clássica descritiva (em especial o CV) e da geoestatística como forma de indicar melhores padrões de amostragem para esses atributos. As amostras do horizonte B foram coletadas na interseção de uma malha georreferenciada com espaçamento regular a 30 m, adicionando-se mais 10 % de pontos com posicionamento aleatório para reduzir o efeito-pepita (total de 135 amostras). Para a descrição da dispersão e variabilidade dos dados foi utilizada a análise por estatística descritiva clássica (média, mediana, máximo, mínimo, desvio-padrão, coeficiente de variação (CV), assimetria, curtose e teste de Shapiro-Wilk), enquanto para a caracterização da variabilidade espacial utilizou-se a geoestatística na produção dos semivariogramas. Os teores de caulinita (Ct) apresentaram baixo CV (10,8 %), porém alta variabilidade espacial, com alcance de apenas 22,4 m. Já o atributo que apresentou maior CV foi a relação Fe amorfo/Fe cristalino (94,6 %), indicando grande dispersão dos valores em relação à média, no entanto seu alcance foi de 64,6 m, evidenciando média a baixa variabilidade espacial. Foi observado efeito-pepita puro apenas na substituição isomórfica de Fe por Al na hematita (Hm). O Fe cristalino foi o atributo que apresentou maior alcance, com valor de 625 m. Contudo, quando se analisaram os teores de Hm e goethita separadamente, a variabilidade espacial foi ampliada.

The physical and chemical properties of a soil depend largely on its mineralogical constitution. Even over short horizontal distances, spatial variability may be high, and are best described by classical descriptive statistics associated with geostatistics. The objective of this study was to characterize the spatial variability of clay mineralogical properties of soils from the Guabirotuba formation, in the metropolitan region of Curitiba (PR), by classical descriptive statistics (especially coefficient of variation - CV) and geostatistics to propose more adequate sampling standards for these soils. The B horizon samples were collected at the intersection of a georeferenced grid at regular intervals of 30 m, plus 10 % additional randomly located points to reduce the nugget effect (135 total samples). For the description of dispersion and variability of the data analysis classical descriptive statistics was used (mean, median, maximum, minimum, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, skewness, kurtosis and Shapiro-Wilk test) and to characterize spatial variability geostatistics were used to establish semivariograms. The CV of the kaolinite contents was low (10.8 %), but spatial variability was high, with a reach of only 22.4 m. The property with the highest CV was the ratio amorphous Fe/crystalline Fe (94.6 %), indicating a wide dispersion of the values in relation to the mean but its reach was 64.6 m, indicating medium to low spatial variability. A pure nugget effect was only observed for isomorphic Fe substitution by Al in hematite. Crystalline Fe was the property with the highest reach, with a value of 625 m. However, when analyzing the contents of hematite and goethite separately, the spatial variability was wider.

A amostragem do solo é uma importante etapa para caracterização dos atributos físicos e químicos de uma área e definir práticas de manejo e adubação. Para isso, usualmente é utilizada amostragem composta, que busca a representação da área por meio da homogeneização de amostras simples, e, assim, a subdivisão da área em glebas homogêneas assume um importante papel. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar a variabilidade dos atributos químicos (pH, Ca2+, Mg2+, Al3+, K, P, H e C orgânico) e físicos do solo (areia grossa, areia fina, silte e argila) em uma população de amostras em diferentes níveis de subdivisão das glebas e verificar a confiabilidade da amostragem composta da área. A área do estudo situa-se na Fazenda Experimental do Canguiri, da Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba (PR). A coleta das amostras foi realizada numa gleba de 12,88 ha, com espaçamento de 30 m, totalizando 135 amostras simples. Os dados foram analisados por medidas de dispersão e normalidade, tomando os seguintes níveis de subdivisão: (a) área total (n=135); (b) compartimentos geomorfológicos: inferior (n=38), médio (n=60) e superior (n=37); e (c) subdivisão dos compartimentos em unidades de mapeamento: inferior - três unidades, médio - quatro unidades, superior - três unidades. Os atributos que apresentaram maior variabilidade foram Al3+, P e K+. Com maior subdivisão, da área, os parâmetros estatísticos mostraram menor variação dos dados. Para o Al3+, por exemplo, com a maior subdivisão os valores de amplitude (diferença percentual entre o valor mínimo e o máximo) passaram de 3.895 % para 294 %, mostrando a importância dos critérios utilizados na subdivisão das glebas. Em áreas com relevo mais acidentado, mesmo a coleta de amostra composta por compartimento ou por unidade de mapeamento não garantiu a homogeneidade da amostragem. A distribuição dos dados para a maioria dos atributos em área total e em compartimentos geomorfológicos não seguiu a distribuição normal, restringindo o uso da amostragem composta nessas condições, ao contrário do observado quando a área foi subdividida em unidades de mapeamento.

Soil sampling is an important part of soil physical and chemical characterization underlying management and fertilization practices. For this purpose, composite sampling is largely used in order to represent the area by the homogenization of single samples. Consequently, the subdivision of the area in homogeneous plots plays an important role. The aim of this study was to evaluate the variability of soil chemical (pH; Ca2+; Mg2+; Al3+; K; P; H; organic carbon) and physical properties (coarse sand, fine sand, silt, and clay) in a sample set at different subdivision levels and to verify the reliability of the composite sample of the area. The study area is part of the Experimental Farm Canguiri of the Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba (PR). Soil sampling was performed in an area of 12.88 ha at points 30 m away from each other, resulting in 135 simple samples. Data were analyzed by dispersion and normality parameters, using the following subdivision levels: (a) total area (n=135); (b) geomorphological compartments: lower (n=38), medium (n=60), upper (n=37); (c) compartment division in mapping units: lower - 3 units, medium - 4 units, upper - 3 units. Al3+, P and K+ were the properties with highest variability. With increasing area subdivision, the statistical parameters showed less data variation. For Al3+, for example, at the highest level of subdivision, the amplitude values (percentage difference between highest and lowest values) decreased from 3.895 to 294 %, indicating the importance of the criteria underlying plot division. In areas with higher slope, even the composite sampling based on geomorphological compartments or mapping units did not ensure the sampling quality. For most properties in the total area and geomorphological compartments, the data distribution was not normal, limiting the use of composite sampling under these conditions, although the opposite was observed when the area was subdivided into mapping units.