ABSTRACT From 1913 onwards, the global situation changed from a scenario of nitrogen (N) scarcity to an abundance of ammonia (NH3) produced synthetically via the Haber-Bosch process. Several N compounds have been synthesized since then, with urea becoming the main source of N, accounting for 55 % of current N consumption. However, N efficiency in agroecosystems is low and, normally, N recovery in cultivated plants is less than 50 %. This occurs because a large amount of reactive N is lost to the environment, inducing various forms of pollution, threatening human and environmental health, in addition to causing a negative economic impact on the farmer. The main processes responsible for low N efficiency are NH3 volatilization, leaching, and N denitrification. Considering global NH3 volatilization losses of 14 %, it can be assumed that up to 8.6 million Mg of urea are lost every year in the form of NH3. For each ton of NH3 produced, 1.9 to 3.8 Mg of CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere. Therefore, increasing N use efficiency (NUE) without compromising yield is a necessity and a challenge for crop improvement programs and current management systems, in addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In this context, enhanced efficiency fertilizers (EEFs), which contain technologies that minimize the potential for nutrient losses compared to conventional sources, are an alternative to increasing the efficiency of nitrogen fertilization. Currently, EEFs are classified into three categories: stabilized, slow-release, and controlled-release. This study aims to understand the technologies used to produce EEFs and the factors that govern their availability to plants. This review covers the following topics: the discovery of N, N dynamics in the soil-atmosphere system, N assimilation in plants, strategies to increase NUE in agrosystems, NH3 synthesis, NH3 volatilization losses, N fertilizer technologies, the importance of characterization of EEFs, conventional nitrate or ammonium-based fertilizers to reduce gaseous losses of NH3 and future prospects for the use of N fertilizers in agriculture. 191 onwards (N NH (NH3 HaberBosch Haber Bosch process then 5 consumption However normally environment pollution health farmer leaching denitrification 1 86 8 6 8. 19 9 1. 38 3 3. CO atmosphere Therefore (NUE systems emissions context , (EEFs) sources fertilization Currently categories stabilized slowrelease, slowrelease slow release, release slow-release controlledrelease. controlledrelease controlled release. controlled-release topics soilatmosphere soil system agrosystems synthesis ammoniumbased ammonium based agriculture (NH (EEFs

ABSTRACT: The use of crop residues as a bioenergy feedstock is considered a potential strategy to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, indiscriminate harvesting of crop residues can induce deleterious effects on soil functioning, plant growth and other ecosystem services. Here, we have summarized the information available in the literature to identify and discuss the main trade-offs and synergisms involved in crop residue management for bioenergy production. The data consistently showed that crop residue harvest and the consequent lower input of organic matter into the soil led to C storage depletions over time, reducing cycling, supply and availability of soil nutrients, directly affecting the soil biota. Although the biota regulates key functions in the soil, crop residue can also cause proliferation of some important agricultural pests. In addition, crop residues act as physical barriers that protect the soil against raindrop impact and temperature variations. Therefore, intensive crop residue harvest can cause soil structure degradation, leading to soil compaction and increased risks of erosion. With regard to GHG emissions, there is no consensus about the potential impact of management of crop residue harvest. In general, residue harvest decreases CO2 and N2O emissions from the decomposition process, but it has no significant effect on CH4 emissions. Plant growth responses to soil and microclimate changes due to crop residue harvest are site and crop specific. Adoption of the best management practices can mitigate the adverse impacts of crop residue harvest. Longterm experiments within strategic production regions are essential to understand and monitor the impact of integrated agricultural systems and propose customized solutions for sustainable crop residue management in each region or landscape. Furthermore, private and public investments/cooperations are necessary for a better understanding of the potential environmental, economic and social implications of crop residue use for bioenergy production.

O adensamento da cultura do algodão aumenta a competição entre plantas por recursos, como luz, nutrientes e água; logo, o período de florescimento é reduzido e, consequentemente, a marcha de acúmulo de matéria seca é alterada. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar a marcha de absorção de N, P e K pelo algodoeiro, identificando a época de maior absorção e a quantidade absorvida e exportada em espaçamentos adensado (48 cm - 20,58 plantas m-2), intermediário (75 cm - 13,30 plantas m-2) e convencional (96 cm - 10,39 plantas m-2). Foram amostradas três plantas úteis por parcela aos 46, 69, 99, 139, 148 e 166 dias após a emergência (DAE), em que foram determinados o acúmulo de matéria seca, N, P e K. O acúmulo de matéria seca nas plantas cultivadas no espaçamento de 48 cm foi maior no início do desenvolvimento, igualando-se às demais ao final do ciclo, o que resultou em maior acúmulo de N entre os 69 e 99 DAE, no menor espaçamento. O adensamento antecipa o pico de absorção de nutrientes, sugerindo a antecipação das adubações de cobertura com N e K no algodoeiro cultivado nesse sistema. Para condições de fertilidade média/alta, a dose de nutrientes a ser aplicada não precisaria ser alterada em função do aumento da densidade de plantas, pois não há variação nas quantidades de N, P e K exportados por kg de algodão produzido, em fibra ou em caroço.

An increase in plant density of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L., cv. FM 966 LL) results in increased interplant competition for resources, and consequently the flowering period is shortened and the rate of dry matter accumulation changed. The purpose of this study was to determine the N, P and K uptake rates by cotton plants, identifying the time of greatest absorption and the total uptake and export in narrow spacing (48 cm - 20.58 plants m-2), intermediate (75 cm - 13.30 plants m-2 ) and conventional spacing (96 cm - 10.39 plants m-2). Three competitive plants were sampled per plot 46, 69, 99, 139, 148, and 166 days after plant emergence, when dry matter accumulation, and N, P and K contents were determined. Dry matter accumulation was faster in the beginning in the narrower spacing of 48 cm, but in the end equal to the other densities; N accumulation was highest in the narrower spacing, between 69 and 99 DAE. High plant density results in an earlier absorption peak of nutrients, suggesting an anticipated sidedressing with N and K in cotton grown in this system. For medium or highly fertile soils, the nutrient rates to be applied would not have to be changed at a higher plant density, because the amounts of N, P and K exported per kg in cotton fiber or cotton seed were not significantly different.

Efeitos negativos do glifosate na nutrição mineral da soja têm sido relatados, particularmente na absorção e redistribuição do Mn, mas a maioria dos experimentos da literatura foi conduzida utilizando-se plantas não resistentes ao herbicida. Os efeitos do glifosate na cinética de absorção, acumulação e distribuição do Mn em soja foram estudados em três experimentos. No primeiro, em solução nutritiva, os parâmetros de absorção de Mn (Imax, Km e Cmin) foram determinados em função da aplicação de glifosate. Em um segundo experimento, a absorção e a distribuição diferencial do Mn na soja foram determinadas, em solução nutritiva, em função da aplicação de glifosate, empregando-se uma variedade convencional e sua quase-isogênica resistente ao herbicida (RR). No terceiro experimento, foi estudada a resposta de variedades de soja resistentes ao glifosate ao Mn aplicado na presença e ausência do herbicida, em vasos com solo deficiente em Mn. O influxo máximo (Imax) foi maior na variedade RR que na convencional. O herbicida aplicado à solução nutritiva em baixas doses diminuiu o Km e o Cmin. Alguns dias após a aplicação do glifosate, a soja desenvolveu amarelecimento nas folhas, um sintoma que, no campo, poderia ser interpretado como deficiência de Mn, porém no tratamento com herbicida não houve efeito na absorção ou distribuição desse elemento na planta. No experimento com solo, a absorção de Mn pela soja foi aumentada com a aplicação de Mn, sem efeito do herbicida. Em condições controladas, não foram encontradas evidências de efeitos negativos do glifosate na absorção, acumulação, distribuição do Mn na soja e na resposta da planta a esse elemento.

Detrimental effects of glyphosate on plant mineral nutrition have been reported in the literature, particularly on Mn uptake and redistribution. However, in most of the experiments conducted so far glyphosate-susceptible plants were used. Effects of glyphosate on Mn absorption kinetics, accumulation, and distribution within the plant, as well as soybean response to Mn as affected by glyphosate were studied in three experiments. In the first experiment, in nutrient solution, the effect of glyphosate on soybean Mn uptake kinetic parameters (Imax, Km and Cmin) was determined. In a second experiment, also in nutrient solution, differential Mn accumulation and distribution were studied for a conventional soybean cultivar and its near-isogenic glyphosate-resistant counterpart as affected by glyphosate. In a third experiment, response of glyphosate-resistant soybean cultivars to Mn application was studied in the presence of glyphosate, in pots with Mn-deficient soil. Maximum Mn influx (Imax) was higher in the herbicide-resistant (GR) cultivar than in its conventional counterpart. Glyphosate applied to nutrient solution at low rates decreased Km and Cmin. A few days after herbicide treatment, RR soybean plants developed yellowish leaves, a symptom which, in the field, could be misinterpreted as Mn deficiency, but herbicide application had no effect on Mn uptake or distribution within the plant. In the soil experiment, soybean Mn uptake was increased by Mn application, with no effect of glyphosate. Under greenhouse conditions, there was no evidence of deleterious effects of glyphosate on Mn absorption, accumulation and distribution in the plant and on soybean cultivars response to Mn application.