Resumen: El artículo muestra el impacto directo e indirecto del COVID-19 en la esperanza de vida de Chile durante el año 2020, utilizando las estadísticas de defunciones definitivas publicadas en marzo del año 2023. Para ello, se estimó una mortalidad contrafactual para año 2020 sin el COVID-19, siguiendo el patrón de mortalidad según causas de muerte desde 1997 a 2019, se elaboraron tablas de mortalidad para calcular la esperanza de vida para los años 2015 a 2020 y para el año 2020 estimado, y luego se descompuso la diferencia entre la esperanza de vida esperada y observada del año 2020 según grupos de edad y causas de muerte. La esperanza de vida del año 2020 quiebra la tendencia a su aumento entre 2015 y 2019, mostrando un retroceso, en hombres y en mujeres, con respecto al año 2019, de 1,32 y 0,75 años respectivamente. Con respecto al año 2020 estimado, la esperanza de vida del 2020 observado es 1,51 años menor en hombres y 0,92 en mujeres, pero el impacto directo del COVID-19 en pérdida de esperanza de vida fue mayor, 1,89 para los hombres y 1,5 para las mujeres, concentrándose en las edades entre los 60 y 84 años en hombres y entre 60 y 89 años en mujeres. El impacto directo negativo del COVID-19 a la esperanza de vida en parte fue contrarrestado por impactos indirectos positivos significativos en dos grupos de causas de muerte, las enfermedades del sistema respiratorio y las enfermedades infecciosas y parasitarias. El estudio muestra la necesidad de distinguir los impactos directos e indirectos del COVID-19, por la incidencia que pueden tener en la salud pública cuando el COVID-19 baje su intensidad y se eliminen las restricciones de movilidad.

Resumo: Este artigo apresenta os impactos direto e indireto da COVID-19 na expectativa de vida no Chile em 2020 a partir de estatísticas de mortalidade publicadas em março de 2023. Para tanto, foi estimada uma mortalidade contrafactual para 2020 sem a COVID-19; a partir do padrão de mortalidade por causa de morte de 1997 a 2019, foram criadas tabelas de mortalidade para calcular a expectativa de vida para o período de 2015 a 2020 e para o ano estimado de 2020 e, em seguida, a diferença entre a expectativa de vida esperada e observada em 2020 foi separada por faixa etária e causa de morte. A expectativa de vida em 2020 interrompe a tendência de aumento entre 2015 e 2019, mostrando um declínio com relação a 2019 de 1,32 ano nos homens e 0,75 ano nas mulheres. Com relação ao ano estimado de 2020, a expectativa de vida observada é 1,51 ano menor nos homens e 0,92 nas mulheres, mas o impacto direto da COVID-19 na diminuição da expectativa de vida foi maior (1,89 para homens e 1,5 para mulheres), concentrando-se nas idades entre 60 e 84 anos nos homens e entre 60 e 89 anos nas mulheres. O impacto direto negativo da COVID-19 na expectativa de vida foi parcialmente atenuado por impactos indiretos positivos significativos em dois grupos de causas de morte: doenças do sistema respiratório e doenças infecciosas e parasitárias. Este estudo mostra a necessidade de diferenciar impactos diretos e indiretos da COVID-19, devido às implicações para a saúde pública quando a intensidade da COVID-19 diminuir e as restrições de mobilidade forem suspensas.

Abstract: This article shows the direct and indirect impacts of COVID-19 on life expectancy in Chile in 2020, based on mortality statistics published in March 2023. To this end, a counterfactual mortality was estimated for 2020 without COVID-19; based on the pattern of mortality by cause of death from 1997 to 2019, mortality charts were created to calculate life expectancy from 2015 to 2020 and an estimation for 2020, and the difference between expected and observed life expectancy in 2020 was then separated by age group and cause of death. Life expectancy in 2020 interrupted the upward trend from 2015 to 2019, showing a decline of 1.32 years in men and 0.75 years in women compared to 2019. Compared to the estimated 2020, life expectancy was 1.51 years lower in men and 0.92 years lower in women, but the direct impact of COVID-19 on the decrease in life expectancy was greater (1.89 for men and 1.5 for women) in the 60-84 age group in men and the 60-89 age group in women. The direct negative impact of COVID-19 on life expectancy was partially mitigated by significant positive indirect impacts on two groups of causes of death: diseases of the respiratory system and infectious and parasitic diseases. This study shows the need to differentiate direct and indirect impacts of COVID-19, due to the implications for public health when the intensity of COVID-19 decreases and mobility restrictions are suspended.

Resumen Desde el surgimiento de la psicología cognitiva, las cogniciones han tomado gran relevancia para explicar una gran variedad de fenómenos psicológicos. Un constructo que ha sido empleado en el ámbito clínico y forense es el de las distorsiones cognitivas que tiene poder predictivo sobre la conducta violenta. Las distorsiones cognitivas se definen como cogniciones irracionales y negativas: pensamiento egocéntrico, culpar a los demás, minimización y asumir lo peor. Para evaluar las distorsiones cognitivas se ha empleado el cuestionario How I Think (“Cómo pienso”), que ha sido validado para población hispanoparlante, pero no contaba con una versión validada en Perú. La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo analizar las propiedades psicométricas de una prueba que evalúa las distorsiones cognitivas en una muestra de adolescentes de la ciudad de Arequipa, Perú. Se evaluó a 2803 estudiantes nivel secundario (48.9 % mujeres y 51.1 % varones) entre 13 y 19 años, a través del cuestionario How I Think de Barriga y Gibbs (1996). El procesamiento psicométrico implicó el análisis de la validez por medio del análisis factorial confirmatorio, la confiabilidad por el método de consistencia interna y la invarianza factorial según el sexo. Los resultados psicométricos indican que la prueba tiene validez de constructo con tres factores: culpar a los demás/asumir lo peor, la minimización y el egocentrismo. También tiene índices de confiabilidad adecuados y no presenta sesgos entre varones o mujeres. Se concluye que el cuestionario How I Think es un instrumento válido y confiable para evaluar a los adolescentes peruanos, aunque presenta variaciones con respecto a su estructura original.

Abstract Since the consolidation of the cognitive psychology and its diffusion around the world, the cognitions have taken a place of great relevance in order to explain a large variety of psychological events and phenomena. Nowadays the cognitive psychology is the dominant paradigm in the wide world of psychology, including obviously the Ibero-american countries. One construct that had been used in the field of clinical and forensic psychology is related to cognitive distortions, which have predictive power over the violent and aggressive behavior in children, adolescents, and adult people (Peña & Andreu, 2012). The cognitive distortions can be defined as a kind of negative and irrational cognitions (Ellis, 1999) that are used to explain or justify the aggressive behavior, and they are also linked to delinquent behavior (Roncero et al., 2016). Cognitive distortions can be classified in two types: self-serving and self-debasing cognitive distortions. In the first case, there are four types of self-serving cognitive distortions: Self-centered, Blaming others, Minimizing/Mislabeling, and Assuming the worst. In the second case, there are also four self-debasing cognitive distortions: Catastrophizing, Overgeneralizing, Personalizing, and Selective abstraction. Both types have great influence in people’s beliefs, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors (Barriga et al., 2008). Several instruments have been applied to measure cognitive distortions. Some of them are orientated to measure the self-serving cognitive distortions and some others are orientated to measure the self-debasing type, such as The Cognitive Errors Questionnaire or The Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire. One of the most used tests to assess the self-serving cognitive distortions is the How I Think Questionnaire, that has been validated in Spanish-speaking population such as Spain, with adequate goodness of fit indexes and reliability; but there is not a validated version in Peru (Rojas et al., 2019). The present research pretends to analyze the psychometrical properties of the How I Think Questionnaire, a mental test that measures the cognitive distortions. Following that aim, this instrument was applied in a sample of adolescents from Arequipa (Peru), comprised of 2 803 middle and upper High School students (48.9 % female and 51.1 % male) between 13 and 19 years old. The version used of the How I Think Questionnaire was the one developed and validated by Barriga and Gibbs (1996), which has 54 items with five levels of Likert’s scale response. The psychometrical process implies the analysis of validity by confirmatory factor analysis, reliability by the internal consistency method, and factorial invariance according to the sex of the adolescents that participated in the sample. The psychometrical results indicate that the How I Think Questionnaire possesses construct validity with three factors: Blaming others/Assuming the worst (which contains two factors from the original version), Minimizing and Self-Centered. It also has adequate reliability indexes, estimated by McDonald’s Omega Test, and there are no trends to male or female scores according to the factorial invariance applied, taking sex as a comparison criterion. It is concluded that the How I Think Questionnaire is a valid and reliable instrument to assess Peruvian adolescents who live in Arequipa, although it presents some variations compared to its original structure. And the How I Think Questionnaire can be applied in male and female adolescents from Arequipa without the risk of biased scores. However, it is recommendable to perform new psychometric studies that include adolescent’s samples from all of Peru to obtain a standardized version for the Peruvian population that could be used in several fields of psychological work. The version presented in this research is a useful instrument to assess cognitive distortions in educational, social, and forensic psychology, by mental health specialists in Arequipa Metropolitan City.

ABSTRACT Introduction: in this research, we analyze the validity, reliability and invariance of the Reactive/Proactive Aggression Questionnaire. Method: the study was an instrumental sort of. We assessed 2803 adolescents, 48.9% female and 51.1% male from Arequipa City. The Reactive/Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) was applied. Results: the test obtained adequate levels of goodness of fit and the bifactorial structure was confirmed by a confirmatory factor analysis. The test presented scalar and strict invariance based on the sex of the evaluated students, so men showed greater reactive and proactive aggressiveness than women. Reliability measures were satisfactory. Conclusion: the RPQ is valid with a two-factor structure; it is also invariant depending on the sex of those evaluated.

RESUMEN Introducción: en esta investigación se analiza la validez, confiabilidad e invarianza del Cuestionario de Agresión Reactiva/Proactiva. Método: el estudio fue de tipo instrumental. Se evaluó a 2803 adolescentes, de los cuales 48.9% fueron mujeres 51.1% varones de la ciudad de Arequipa. Se aplicó el Cuestionario de Agresión Reactiva Proactiva (RPQ). Resultados: la prueba obtuvo índices de bondad de ajuste adecuados y se confirmó la estructura bifactorial mediante el análisis factorial confirmatorio. La prueba presentó invarianza escalar y estricta en función al sexo de los estudiantes evaluados, de modo que los varones muestran una mayor agresividad reactiva y proactiva que las mujeres. Las medidas de confiabilidadfueron satisfactorias. Conclusión: el RPQ es válido con una estructura de dos factores, además es invariante en función al sexo de los evaluados.

Objetivo: Evaluar la estructura factorial, la confiabilidad y la validez de contenido y constructo de una versión en español para Colombia del Inventario de Razones para Vivir (Rfl) en una muestra clínica de sujetos con intento de suicidio. Método: Se hicieron dos traducciones al español y dos traducciones en sentido inverso de cada uno de los ítems. Se examinó la validez del contenido y del constructo, la consistencia interna y la reproducibilidad prueba-reprueba. Resultados: La estructura factorial tiene seis dominios que explican el 63,5% de la varianza: “Creencia en la vida y capacidad de afrontamiento”, “Miedo a la muerte y a la desaprobación social”, “Responsabilidad con la familia”, “Preocupación por los hijos”, “Percepción de incapacidad para el suicidio” y “Objeciones morales”. La consistencia interna fue alta (Alfa de Cronbach=0,96), así como la reproducibilidad prueba-reprueba (CCI=0,89, IC95%: 0,78-0,94). Cuando se evaluó la validez del constructo encontramos diferencias significativas en las puntuaciones del Rflentre individuos con riesgo de suicidio alto y bajo, definido clínicamente. Conclusiones: La versión colombiana del Rflmuestra buenas propiedades psicométricas en una población clínica con comportamiento suicida.

Objective: To evaluate the factor structure, reliability, and construct and content validity of the Colombian Spanish version of the Reasons for Living Inventory (Rfl) in a clinical sample of subjects who attempted suicide. Method: Two translations into Spanish and two back-translations for each of the items were done. We assessed content and construct validity as well as internal consistency and test-retest reproducibility. Results: The factor structure has six domains which explain 63.5% of the variance: “survival and coping beliefs”, “fear of death and social disapproval”, “responsibility to family”, “child-related concerns”, “perception of incapacity for suicide” and “moral objections”. The internal consistency was high (Cronbach’s alpha=0.96), as was test-retest reproducibility (ICC=0.89, IC95%: 0.78-0.94). When assessing construct validity, we found significant differences between individuals with clinically defined high and low suicide risk in Rflscores. Conclusions: The Rflversion for Colombia shows good psychometric properties in clinical population with suicidal behavior.

Objetivos: Describir en un grupo de sujetos que ingresaron por intento de suicidio a los servicios de urgencias de diferentes centros asistenciales de Medellín (Colombia), las características de aquéllos clasifi cados en la evaluación clínica psiquiátrica como de alto y bajo riesgo de reincidencia. Métodos: Estudio de corte transversal. Se hizo entrevista psiquiátrica a 238 individuos con intento de suicidio reciente para clasifi carlos en dos grupos, de alto y bajo riesgo de reincidencia, y se aplicó el instrumento de autorreporte “inventario de razones para vivir” (RFL). Posteriormente, se compararon las características de ambos grupos. Resultados: El 60,5% de los participantes se consideraron de alto riesgo de suicidio y los factores que se encontraron asociados fueron: trastorno depresivo mayor (OR=5,78, IC95%: 3,01-11,2), método violento (OR=5,21, IC95%: 1,89-14,37), intoxicación por sustancias psicoactivas durante el intento (OR=2,46, IC95%: 1,07-5,64) y puntuación en el “inventario de razones para vivir” (OR=0,47, IC95%: 0,34- 0,66). Conclusiones: Aunque los resultados no son generalizables, son similares a los encontrados en otros lugares. Es necesario hacer estudios longitudinales que permitan determinar la utilidad de estas características para predecir conductas suicidas.

Objectives: To describe the characteristics that rendered subjects as having either high risk or low risk of suicide, according to the psychiatric evaluation performed after a suicidal attempt in different emergency services in Medellín, Colombia. Methods: It is a cross-sectional design. 238 individuals were interviewed to classify them in a group of high suicide risk or a group of low suicide risk. The self-report scale “Reasons for Living Inventory” (RFL) was applied. After that, characteristics of the high and low risk groups were compared. Results: The 60.5% of the participants were classifi ed as high risk attempters. The factors associated with high risk were: major depressive disorder (OR=5.78, CI 95%: 3.01-11.2), violent method (OR=5.21, CI 95%: 1.89-14.37), attempt during psychoactive substance intoxication (OR=2.46, CI95%: 1.07-5.64) and score of the “Reasons for Living Inventory” (OR=0.47, IC95%: 0.34-0.66). Conclusions: The results are similar to those reported in studies carried out in other places. Further longitudinal studies are required for determining the utility of these characteristics to predict future suicidal behavior.

Objetivo: validar la escala de envolvimiento emocional y crítica familiar (FEICS) en la población clínica psiquiátrica colombiana. Métodos: se tradujo la escala y luego se hizo el mismo proceso en sentido inverso. Se evaluaron: validez de apariencia por un grupo de expertos, validez de contenido y conceptos mediante análisis factorial de componentes principales, validez concurrente mediante comparación con “monólogo de cinco minutos” y subescala de cohesión de la Escala de Evaluación de Adaptabilidad y Cohesión Familiar (FACES-III), consistencia interna y reproducibilidad test-retest. Resultados: en el análisis factorial se encontraron cuatro dominios: censura, envolvimiento, intrusión y apoyo, que explicaron el 57,4 de la varianza. La consistencia interna de la subescala de crítica fue buena con una alfa de Crombach de 0,76 y la subescala de envolvimiento fue baja con un alfa de Crombach de 0,54. La reproducibilidad test-retest de la subescala de criticismo fue excelente (CCI = 0,92) y de la subescala de envolvimiento, buena (CCI = 0,62). Hubo una correlación significativa entre la subescala de envolvimiento y la de cohesión de la FACES-III (r = 0,26, p = 0,001) y entre la subescala de crítica y el número de comentarios críticos del “monólogo de cinco minutos” (r = 0,31, p = 0,0001). Conclusiones: la FEICS fue de fácil aplicación y mostró cuatro dominios, a diferencia de los dos de la escala original. La subescala de crítica tiene gran consistencia interna, reproducibilidad test-retest y validez de concepto, lo cual la hace útil para la práctica clínica y de investigación. A pesar de que la subescala de envolvimiento se correlacionó con la FACESIII y su reproducibilidad test-retest fue buena, su escasa consistencia interna hace pensar en la necesidad de estudiar con mayor profundidad factores culturales asociados con el envolvimiento para posiblemente modificar los ítems de esta subescala.

Objective: To validate the Family Emotional Involvement and Criticism Scale (FEICS) in colombian psychiatric patients. Methods: Translation and back translation were carried out. Face validity was evaluated by a group of experts. Content and construct validity were assessed through factor analysis of principal components. Concurrent validity was evaluated by comparison with “The Five Minute Speech Sample” and the cohesion subscale of “Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale (FACES-III)”. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability were also assessed. Results: Four domains were found in the factor analysis. These were censure, involvement, intrusion and support, which account for 57.4% of the variance. Internal consistency of the criticism subscale was good (Crombach's Alpha = 0.76). In contrast, internal consistency of the involvement subscale was poor (Crombach's Alpha = 0.54). The test-retest reliability was excellent for the criticism subscale (ICC = 0.92) and was good for the involvement subscale (ICC: 0.62). Significant correlation between the involvement subscale and the cohesion subscale of FACES-III was found (r = 0.26, p = 0.001). Also significant was the correlation between the criticism subscale and the number of critical comments in “The Five Minute Speech Sample” (r=0.31, p=0.0001). Conclusions: FEICS was easy to use and showed four domains in contrast to the original scale which only identified two domains. Good internal consistency, test-retest reliability and construct validity were found in the criticism subscale, making it useful in clinical practice and research. Good correlation with FACES-III and high test-retest reliability were found for the involvement subscale. However, it had poor internal consistency. This underscores the need of taking into account cultural factors associated with involvement possibly having to modify the items in this subscale.