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Abstract Introduction: In Mexico, cardiac rehabilitation (CR) as an interdisciplinary intervention with therapeutic impact in patients with heart disease is growing. There is the need to know actual conditions of CR in our country. Objectives: The objective of this National Registry is to follow-up those existing and new CR units in Mexico through the comparison between the two previous registries, RENAPREC-2009 and RENAPREC II-2015 studies. This is a descriptive study focused on diverse CR activities such as assistance training, and certification of health professionals, barriers, reference, population attended, interdisciplinarity, permanence over time, growth prospects, regulations, post-pandemic condition, integrative characteristics, and scientific research. Results: Data were collected from 45 CR centers in the 32 states, 75.5% are private practice units, 67% are new, 33% were part of RENAPREC II-2015, and 17 have continued since 2009. With a better distribution of CR units along the territory, the median reference of candidates for CR programs is 9% with a significant reduction into tiempo of enrollment to Phase II admission (19 ± 11 days). Regarding to previous registries, the coverance of Phases I, II, and III is 71%, 100%, and 93%, respectively; and a coverance increases in evaluation, risk stratification, and prescription, more comprehensive attendance and prevention strategies. Conclusions: CR in Mexico has grown in the past 7 years. Even there is still low reference and heterogeneity in specific processes, there are strengths such as interdisciplinarity, scientific professionalization of specialists, national diversification, and an official society that are consolidated over time.

Abstract In the present study, the effect of the inoculation of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (root-dwelling bacteria that promote plant growth through various mechanisms, commonly known by the acronym PGPR); LBEndo1 (Bacillus paralicheniformis), NFbEndo2M2 (Acinetobacter guillouiae), KBEndo3 (Aeromonas caviae), and KBEcto4 (Pseudomonas lini) were evaluated in tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv ‘Top1182’) into two soil preparations and the use of compost under commercial shade house conditions. Root weight of tomato plant were increased significantly by inoculation with LBEndo1 and KBEcto4 strains, 119.3 and 81.9%, respectively, on composted flatted soil conditions compared to tomato plants control uninoculated. The PGPR treatments also increased fruit number per plant on both soil condition preparations. KBEcto4 was the treatment with the highest number of fruits with 23 tomatoes plant-1, compared with 18.6 fruits plant-1 control uninoculated on composted flatted soil conditions. The yield and marketable yields were also enhanced by the inoculation of LBEndo1 and KBEcto4 strains in both soil preparations. The plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and the use of organic fertilizer have the potential to be useful under shade house production and is a viable alternative to improving the yield of tomato.

Resumen En el presente estudio, se evaluó el efecto de la inoculación de rizobacterias promotoras del crecimiento vegetal (bacterias que habitan en las raíces que promueven el crecimiento vegetal a través de diversos mecanismos, comúnmente conocidas por el acrónimo PGPR del inglés Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria); LBEndo1 (Bacillus paralicheniformis), NFbEndo2M2 (Acinetobacter guillouiae), KBEndo3 (Aeromonas caviae) y KBEcto4 (Pseudomonas lini) en plantas de tomate (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv ‘Top1182’) en dos preparaciones de suelo y el uso de composta en condiciones de casa sombra comercial. El peso radicular de la planta de tomate aumentó significativamente por la inoculación con las cepas LBEndo1 y KBEcto4, 119.3 y 81.9%, respectivamente, en condiciones de suelo plano compostado en comparación con plantas de tomate de control no inoculadas. Los tratamientos con PGPR también incrementaron el número de frutos por planta en ambas preparaciones de condición de suelo. KBEcto4 fue el tratamiento con el mayor número de frutos con 23 tomates planta-1, en comparación con 18.6 frutos planta-1 del control no inoculado en condiciones de suelo plano compostado. El rendimiento y los rendimientos comercializables también fueron mejorados por la inoculación de las cepas LBEndo1 y KBEcto4 en ambas preparaciones de suelo. Las rizobacterias promotoras del crecimiento vegetal y el uso de fertilizantes orgánicos tienen el potencial de ser útiles bajo la producción en casa sombra y son una alternativa viable para mejorar el rendimiento del tomate.

Abstract: Introduction: Acute myocardial infarction has a high prevalence and possibility of death if timely care is not given. It is possible that treatment could be delayed during a health crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the function of the infarction code in the High Specialty Medical Unit of our institution. The medical indicators of acute coronary ischemic syndrome with ST-segment elevation were compared at two times: before the COVID-19 pandemic and during it. Material and methods: An ambispective, analytical, comparative cohort study was conducted, comparing the periods of February-September 2019 and February-September 2020, in the High Specialty Medical Unit, Centro Médico del Bajío number 1, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Leon, Guanajuato, Mexico. All patients older than 18 years with clinical, electrocardiographic, and enzymatic data of acute coronary ischemic syndrome, accepted in the medical network as infarction code registered in the National Registry of Acute Coronary Ischemic Syndromes (RENASCA) electronic case report form were included in the study. Results: The independent samples t-test was used to determine the impact of the infarction code initiative based on the reperfusion therapies performed, the door-to-needle, the door-to-balloon time, and the ischemia time. There was a significant difference in the reperfusion strategy, with greater thrombolysis during the COVID-19 pandemic (57.4% versus 72.6%, odds ratio [OR] 1.97, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.49-0.82, p < 0.001), as well as reperfusion criteria (21.03% versus 35.37%, OR 2.05, 95% CI 0.53-0.80, p < 0.0001). Mortality was not different between the time periods. Conclusions: The COVID-19 pandemic has not impacted operation of the infarction code in the High Specialty Medical Unit Centro Médico del Bajío number 1 because the medical indicators of acute coronary ischemic syndrome with ST-segment elevation did not change.

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Abstract The recommendations in which the Mexican Society of Cardiology (SMC) in conjunction with the National Association of Cardiologists of Mexico (ANCAM) as well as different Mexican medical associations linked to cardiology are presented, after a comprehensive and consensual review and analysis of the topics related to cardiovascular diseases in the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientific positions are analyzed and responsible recommendations on general measures are given to patients, with personal care, healthy eating, regular physical activity, actions in case of cardio-respiratory arrest, protection of the patient and health personnel as well as precise indications in the use of non-invasive cardiovascular imaging, prescription of medications, care in specific topics such as systemic arterial hypertension, heart failure, arrhythmias and acute coronary syndromes, in addition to emphasizing electrophysiology, interventionism, cardiac surgery and in cardiac rehabilitation. The main interest is to provide the medical community with a general orientation on what to do in daily practice and patients with cardiovascular diseases in the setting of this unprecedented epidemiological crisis of COVID-19.

Resumen Se presentan las recomendaciones en las cuales la Sociedad Mexicana de Cardiología (SMC) en conjunto con la Asociación Nacional de Cardiólogos de México (ANCAM), así como diferentes asociaciones médicas mexicanas vinculadas con la cardiología, después de una revisión y análisis exhaustivo y consensuado sobre los tópicos relacionados con las enfermedades cardiovasculares en la pandemia de COVID-19, se analizan posturas científicas y se dan recomendaciones responsables sobre medidas generales a los pacientes, con cuidados personales, alimentación saludable, actividad física regular, acciones en caso de paro cardiorrespiratorio, la protección del paciente y del personal de salud así como las indicaciones precisas en el uso de la imagen cardiovascular no invasiva, la prescripción de medicamentos, cuidados en tópicos específicos como en la hipertensión arterial sistémica, insuficiencia cardiaca, arritmias y síndromes coronarios agudos, además de hacer énfasis en los procedimientos de electrofisiología, intervencionismo, cirugía cardiaca y en la rehabilitación cardiaca. El interés principal es brindar a la comunidad médica una orientación general sobre el quehacer en la práctica cotidiana y pacientes con enfermedades cardiovasculares en el escenario esta crisis epidemiológica sin precedentes de COVID-19.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the current status of mental health care through a socioecological analysis, based on the perceptions of health center (HC) staff and users in Mexico City (CDMX). Materials and methods: Descriptive exploratory study of mixed methods (QUALI→ QUANT). During the qualitative phase, staff at 19 centers located in three Mexico City boroughs were interviewed and during the quantitative phase, a questionnaire was applied to patients. Results: The influence and interdependence of the various factors impacting mental health (MH) care were identified. Health personnel and patients mentioned limited resources, which impact service quality, public MH policies that are not always implemented in practice and a care model that does not make it possible to delve into emotional problems. Conclusions: Improving MH care at the primary care level requires reflective work from a variety of perspectives.

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la situación actual de la atención de la salud mental a partir de un análisis socioecológico, sustentado en las percepciones del personal y usuarios de centros de salud (CS) de la Ciudad de México (CDMX). Material y métodos: Estudio exploratorio descriptivo de métodos mixtos (CUALI → CUAN). En la fase cualitativa, se entrevistó al personal de 19 centros ubicados en tres delegaciones de la CDMX y, en la fase cuantitativa, se aplicó un cuestionario a pacientes. Resultados: Se identificó la influencia e interdependencia de diferentes factores que impactan la atención de la salud mental (SM). El personal de salud y pacientes reconocen escases de recursos que impactan la calidad del servicio, políticas públicas en SM que no siempre se concretan en la práctica y un modelo de atención que no permite ahondar en problemas emocionales. Conclusiones: Mejorar la atención de la SM en el primer nivel requiere de un trabajo reflexivo desde diversas ópticas.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the current status of mental health care through a socioecological analysis, based on the perceptions of health center (HC) staff and users in Mexico City (CDMX). Materials and methods: Descriptive exploratory study of mixed methods (QUALI→ QUANT). During the qualitative phase, staff at 19 centers located in three Mexico City boroughs were interviewed and during the quantitative phase, a questionnaire was applied to patients. Results: The influence and interdependence of the various factors impacting mental health (MH) care were identified. Health personnel and patients mentioned limited resources, which impact service quality, public MH policies that are not always implemented in practice and a care model that does not make it possible to delve into emotional problems. Conclusions: Improving MH care at the primary care level requires reflective work from a variety of perspectives.

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la situación actual de la atención de la salud mental a partir de un análisis socioecológico, sustentado en las percepciones del personal y usuarios de centros de salud (CS) de la Ciudad de México (CDMX). Material y métodos: Estudio exploratorio descriptivo de métodos mixtos (CUALI → CUAN). En la fase cualitativa, se entrevistó al personal de 19 centros ubicados en tres delegaciones de la CDMX y, en la fase cuantitativa, se aplicó un cuestionario a pacientes. Resultados: Se identificó la influencia e interdependencia de diferentes factores que impactan la atención de la salud mental (SM). El personal de salud y pacientes reconocen escases de recursos que impactan la calidad del servicio, políticas públicas en SM que no siempre se concretan en la práctica y un modelo de atención que no permite ahondar en problemas emocionales. Conclusiones: Mejorar la atención de la SM en el primer nivel requiere de un trabajo reflexivo desde diversas ópticas.

Rare earths (Europium, cerium)-doped CdS nanofilms are prepared using the growth technique chemical bath deposition (CBD) at the reservoir temperature of 70±2°C varying the synthesis time in a wide range. For the rare earths doped CdS nanofilms the synthesis time was ranged from 80 to 135 min. The rare earths molar concentration was in the range 0.0≤x≤3.47, which was determined by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis reveals that CdS nanofilms showed the zinc blende (ZB) crystalline phase. The nanocrystal size was ranged from 2.67 to 2.35 nm for the CdS and 1.84-2.33 nm for rare earth-doped CdS that were determined by the Debye-Scherrer equation from ZB (111) direction and it was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The doped CdS exhibits a direct band gap that diminishes with the increase of the synthesis time, from 2.50 to 2.42 eV, which was obtained by transmittance. The room-temperature photoluminescence of CdS presents the band-to-band transition at 431 nm, which is associated with quantum confinement because the grain size is less than its Bohr exciton radius and a dominant band at 523 nm, which is called the optical signature of interstitial oxygen. Eu3+-doped CdS photoluminescence shows the dominant radiative peak at 576 nm that is associated to the intra-4f radiative transition of Eu3+ ions, which corresponds to the magnetic dipole transition, (5D0→7F1). For the Ce3+-doped CdS the dominant radiative transitions are clearly redshifted. Additionally, other radiative peaks associated at structural defects are observed. The passivation of the CdS by rare earths was approximately of two orders of magnitude obtaining better results with cerium.

This work presents the characterization of ZnTe nanolayers grown on GaAs and GaSb (100) substrates by the Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) regime. Under certain conditions, the alternating exposition of a substrate surface to the element vapours makes possible the growth of atomic layers in a reactor where the atmosphere is high-purity hydrogen. ZnTe was grown simultaneously on GaAs and GaSb at the same run, allowing, a comparison between the effects produced by the superficial processes due to the different used substrates, thereby eliminating possible unintended changes of growth parameters. Nanolayers on GaSb maintained their shiny appearance even at temperatures near 420°C. It was found that for exposure times below 2.5 s there was not growth on GaAs, while for GaSb the shortest time was 1.5 s at 385°C. By HRXRD the peak corresponding to (004) diffraction plane of ZnTe was identified and investigated, the FWHM resulted very wide (600-800 arcsec) indicating a highly distorted lattice mainly due to mosaicity. Raman scattering shows the peak corresponding to LO-ZnTe, which is weak and slightly shifted in comparison with the reported for the bulk ZnTe at 210 cm-1. Additionally, the measurements suggest that the crystalline quality have a dependence with the growth temperature.

Emotional distress is the subjective sensation of diminishment in well-being which manifests itself in a number of unspecific symptoms. It might be a risk factor for the development of mental illness, especially among individuals with psychosocial or biological vulnerability. Recent studies show that primary health care services receive a growing number of patients who suffer distress, but do not fulfill the diagnostic criteria of a mental or physical illness. This phenomenon is more frequent among women. The objective of this paper is to analyze the emotional distress experienced by a group of women who attended primary health care institutions in Mexico City, as well as their perceptions and experiences around the attention received, in order to identify their treatment needs. Data was gathered through techniques and instruments pertaining qualitative methodology. The information was coded and analyzed according to the meaning categorization method developed by Kvale. The results show that the main triggers of emotional distress are associated to daily life worries (lack of money, problems with children, domestic violence, among others). In some cases, it is associated as well with traumatic events, such as violence and sexual abuse in the past or at present. Data also suggest that women do not talk about emotional distress directly during medical consultations and that health care professionals do not identify distress or minimize its importance. These aspects are related to the current characteristics of the service, which lacks a comprehensive approach and a psychosocial point of view.

La presencia de malestar emocional -que se define como el conjunto de sensaciones subjetivas que percibe una persona de que su bienestar sufre una merma y que se manifiesta por síntomas inespecíficos- puede constituir un factor de riesgo para la aparición de enfermedades mentales, sobre todo en personas con vulnerabilidades biológicas y psicosociales. Estudios recientes señalan que los servicios de atención primaria reciben un número, cada vez mayor, de personas con malestares que no cubren los criterios diagnósticos de una enfermedad, ya sea mental o física, fenómeno que es más frecuente en las mujeres. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar los malestares emocionales de un grupo de mujeres que acude a instituciones de atención primaria de la Ciudad de México, así como sus percepciones y vivencias sobre la atención recibida, con el propósito de identificar necesidades de atención. Para recopilar la información se utilizaron técnicas e instrumentos propios de la metodología cualitativa. La información se codificó y analizó conforme al método de "categorización de significados" propuesto por Kvale. Los resultados mostraron que los principales detonantes de los malestares emocionales en las participantes se asocian con las preocupaciones que enfrentan cotidianamente (como falta de dinero, problemas con los hijos y violencia intrafamiliar) y, en otros casos, con la vivencia de experiencias traumáticas de violencia y abuso sexual, pasadas y presentes. Los datos demuestran también que las mujeres no hablan directamente de su malestar emocional, pero que tampoco lo detecta el personal de salud o que, cuando lo hace, le resta importancia. Lo anterior se relaciona con las condiciones actuales del servicio, que no ofrece una atención integral y adolece de una visión psicosocial.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate some of the key indicators that characterize the Mexican mental health system using the World Health Organization's Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems (WHO-AIMS). METHODS: The strategy for examining the WHO-AIMS indicators included: (i) a review of documentary sources; (ii) application of the questionnaire; and (iii) group work with a team of experts using the consensus technique. To facilitate collection of the data, a questionnaire was prepared in which the indicators were turned into simple questions. The people gathering the data were trained, and the activity was monitored. RESULTS: It was found that, of the total budget for health, only 2% is allocated for mental health, and, of that share, 80% is used in the operation of psychiatric hospitals. The pivotal point for mental health care is in the psychiatric hospital; there are very few psychiatric units in the general hospitals, few residential establishments, and few services targeted specifically to care for children and adolescents. Access is limited because of the centralized health care system, with the majority of establishments located in the large cities. Only 30% of primary care services have protocols for the evaluation and treatment of mental disorders. Finally, in the mental health facilities, the ratios of psychiatrists, other physicians, nurses, and psychologists per 100 000 population are 1.6, 1.3, 3.4, and 1.5, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: More funding will be needed in order to bridge the gap between the mental health burden and the budget allocated for its care, and resources will need to be used more rationally, with the first level of care becoming the pivot. In addition, it will be necessary to increase the number of specialists, offer periodic in-service training for personnel at the first level of care, and enlist greater participation by the rest of society.

OBJETIVO: Evaluar algunos indicadores clave del sistema de salud mental mexicano utilizando el Instrumento de Evaluación para Sistemas de Salud Mental de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (IESM-OMS). MÉTODOS: La estrategia utilizada para responder a los indicadores del IESM-OMS incluyó: i) Revisión de fuentes documentales, ii) Aplicación de cuestionarios y iii) Trabajo grupal utilizando la técnica de consenso con expertos. Para facilitar la recopilación de la información, se elaboró un cuestionario donde los indicadores fueron transformados en preguntas sencillas. Asimismo, se capacitó a las personas encargadas de recabar los datos y se realizó un seguimiento de dicha actividad. RESULTADOS: Del total del presupuesto asignado a la salud, solo 2% estaba destinado a la salud mental y, de ese porcentaje, 80% se empleaba para el funcionamiento de los hospitales psiquiátricos. El eje de la atención de la salud mental se encontraba en el hospital psiquiátrico y existían muy pocas unidades de hospitalización psiquiátrica en los hospitales generales y establecimientos residenciales, así como servicios específicos para niños y adolescentes. El acceso estaba limitado por la centralización del sistema de atención, ya que la mayoría de los establecimientos se ubicaban en las grandes ciudades. Solamente 30% de los servicios de atención primaria contaban con protocolos de evaluación y tratamiento para trastornos mentales. Finalmente, en los establecimientos de salud mental, la tasa de psiquiatras, médicos, enfermeros y psicólogos por cada 100 000 habitantes registró valores de 1,6, 1,3, 3,4 y 1,5 respectivamente. CONCLUSIONES: Para reducir la brecha entre la carga que representan los trastornos mentales y el presupuesto asignado para su atención, se requiere de un mayor financiamiento y una utilización de los recursos más racional, considerando al primer nivel como el eje de la atención. Asimismo, será necesario ampliar el número de especialistas, capacitar periódicamente al personal en los primeros niveles de atención e incrementar la participación del resto de la sociedad.

OBJECTIVE: To identify individual risk factors for malaria infection of inhabitants in the residual transmission focus on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A population-based, matched case-control study was conducted from January 2002 to July 2003 comparing the frequency of exposure to individual risk factors in subjects presenting clinical malaria and uninfected controls. A malaria case was defined as an individual living in the study area presenting malaria symptoms and a Plasmodium vivax-positive thick blood smear; controls were individuals negative to P. vivax parasites and antibodies of the same gender and with ± five years as the case. A standardized questionnaire was used to record information about the individual risk factors associated with malaria episodes in cases and two controls for each case. RESULTS: In a multiple conditional logistic regression model analysis of data from 119 cases and 238 controls, 18 out of 99 variables were significantly associated (p< 0.05) with increased risk of malaria, including: being born in another locality (RM 3.16, 95% IC 1.16-6.13); speaking only an autochthonous language (RM= 2.48, 95% IC 1.19-3.77); having poor knowledge about malaria (RM= 2.26 95% IC 1.10-4.66 P< 0.02); the amount of vegetation around the house (RM= 20.43, 95% IC 5.98-70.87, P< 0.000; RM= 3.78, 95% IC 1.21-11.80, for 60-100% and 30-59%, respectively); living in houses constructed with perishable materials (RM= 2.85, 95% IC 1.62-5.01); living on the periphery of the town (RM= 6.23, 95% IC 3.50-11.0); sleeping on a dirt floor (RM= 2.98, 95% IC 1.78-5.01) or with two or more people in the same bed (RM= 1.85, 95% CI 1.09-3.14); not using bed nets (RM= 2.39, 95% IC 1.18-4.83, P< 0.003) or using bed nets with holes (RM= 13.93, 95 IC 2.48-78.01); traveling outside of the village (RM= 9.16, 95% IC 1.98-42.2); and previous malaria cases in the house (RM= 5.84, 95% IC 3.33-10.22). CONCLUSIONS: Risk of malaria infection was associated with socio-cultural and environmental factors exposing individuals to mosquito bites. A higher risk of malaria infection occurred outside the locality and by intradomiciliar transmission probably as a result of relapsing asymptomatic relatives.

OBJETIVO: Identificar los factores de riesgo individuales determinantes para contraer paludismo en habitantes del foco residual de transmisión de paludismo localizado en la costa del Pacífico de Oaxaca. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio pareado de casos y controles, con base poblacional de enero de 2002 a julio de 2003, comparando la frecuencia de exposición a diversos factores de riesgo individuales en sujetos que presentaron un cuadro clínico de paludismo y controles no infectados. Un caso de paludismo fue definido como un individuo que vive en el área de estudio que presentó síntomas de paludismo y diagnosticado positivo a P. vivax en examen de gota gruesa de sangre, los controles fueron individuos negativos a parásitos y anticuerpos anti-P. vivax del mismo sexo y ± cinco años la edad del caso. Se usó un cuestionario estandarizado para registrar información de factores de riesgo individuales asociados a episodios de paludismo en casos y dos controles por caso. RESULTADOS: El análisis en un modelo de regresión logística condicional múltiple, 18 de 99 variables fueron significativamente asociadas (p< 0.05) con el incremento en el riesgo de paludismo, incluyendo: nacer fuera de la localidad (RM 3.16, 95% IC 1.16-6.13); hablar sólo un idioma autóctono (RM= 2.48, 95% IC 1.19-3.77); pobre conocimiento de cómo se transmite y trata el paludismo (RM= 2.26 95% IC 1.10-4.66 P< 0.02); cobertura de vegetación alrededor de la casa (RM= 20.43, 95% IC 5.98-70.87, P< 0.000; RM= 3.78, 95% IC 1.21-11.80, para 60-100% y 30-59%, respectivamente); casas construidas con materiales perecederos (RM= 2.85, 95% IC 1.62-5.01); localización de la casa en la periferia de la localidad (RM= 6.23, 95% IC 3.50-11.0); dormir en el suelo (RM= 2.98, 95% IC 1.78-5.01); dormir con dos o más personas en la misma cama (RM= 1.85, 95% CI 1.09-3.14); no uso de mosquiteros (RM= 2.39, 95% IC 1.18-4.83, P< 0.003), uso de mosquiteros con agujeros (RM= 13.93, 95 IC 2.48-78.01); viajes fuera de la localidad de residencia (RM= 9.16, 95% IC 1.98-42.2); y casos previos de paludismo en la casa (RM= 5.84, 95% IC 3.33-10.22). CONCLUSIONES: El riesgo para la infección de paludismo se asoció a factores socioculturales y ambientales que incrementan la exposición de los individuos a la picadura de mosquitos. Un riesgo mayor de infectarse por paludismo ocurrió en la periferia de la localidad y por transmisión intradomiciliaria probablemente a causa de los familiares asintomáticos con recaídas.

OBJECTIVE: To identify individual risk factors for malaria infection of inhabitants in the residual transmission focus on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A population-based, matched case-control study was conducted from January 2002 to July 2003 comparing the frequency of exposure to individual risk factors in subjects presenting clinical malaria and uninfected controls. A malaria case was defined as an individual living in the study area presenting malaria symptoms and a Plasmodium vivax-positive thick blood smear; controls were individuals negative to P. vivax parasites and antibodies of the same gender and with ± five years as the case. A standardized questionnaire was used to record information about the individual risk factors associated with malaria episodes in cases and two controls for each case. RESULTS: In a multiple conditional logistic regression model analysis of data from 119 cases and 238 controls, 18 out of 99 variables were significantly associated (p< 0.05) with increased risk of malaria, including: being born in another locality (RM 3.16, 95% IC 1.16-6.13); speaking only an autochthonous language (RM= 2.48, 95% IC 1.19-3.77); having poor knowledge about malaria (RM= 2.26 95% IC 1.10-4.66 P< 0.02); the amount of vegetation around the house (RM= 20.43, 95% IC 5.98-70.87, P< 0.000; RM= 3.78, 95% IC 1.21-11.80, for 60-100% and 30-59%, respectively); living in houses constructed with perishable materials (RM= 2.85, 95% IC 1.62-5.01); living on the periphery of the town (RM= 6.23, 95% IC 3.50-11.0); sleeping on a dirt floor (RM= 2.98, 95% IC 1.78-5.01) or with two or more people in the same bed (RM= 1.85, 95% CI 1.09-3.14); not using bed nets (RM= 2.39, 95% IC 1.18-4.83, P< 0.003) or using bed nets with holes (RM= 13.93, 95 IC 2.48-78.01); traveling outside of the village (RM= 9.16, 95% IC 1.98-42.2); and previous malaria cases in the house (RM= 5.84, 95% IC 3.33-10.22). CONCLUSIONS: Risk of malaria infection was associated with socio-cultural and environmental factors exposing individuals to mosquito bites. A higher risk of malaria infection occurred outside the locality and by intradomiciliar transmission probably as a result of relapsing asymptomatic relatives.

OBJETIVO: Identificar los factores de riesgo individuales determinantes para contraer paludismo en habitantes del foco residual de transmisión de paludismo localizado en la costa del Pacífico de Oaxaca. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio pareado de casos y controles, con base poblacional de enero de 2002 a julio de 2003, comparando la frecuencia de exposición a diversos factores de riesgo individuales en sujetos que presentaron un cuadro clínico de paludismo y controles no infectados. Un caso de paludismo fue definido como un individuo que vive en el área de estudio que presentó síntomas de paludismo y diagnosticado positivo a P. vivax en examen de gota gruesa de sangre, los controles fueron individuos negativos a parásitos y anticuerpos anti-P. vivax del mismo sexo y ± cinco años la edad del caso. Se usó un cuestionario estandarizado para registrar información de factores de riesgo individuales asociados a episodios de paludismo en casos y dos controles por caso. RESULTADOS: El análisis en un modelo de regresión logística condicional múltiple, 18 de 99 variables fueron significativamente asociadas (p< 0.05) con el incremento en el riesgo de paludismo, incluyendo: nacer fuera de la localidad (RM 3.16, 95% IC 1.16-6.13); hablar sólo un idioma autóctono (RM= 2.48, 95% IC 1.19-3.77); pobre conocimiento de cómo se transmite y trata el paludismo (RM= 2.26 95% IC 1.10-4.66 P< 0.02); cobertura de vegetación alrededor de la casa (RM= 20.43, 95% IC 5.98-70.87, P< 0.000; RM= 3.78, 95% IC 1.21-11.80, para 60-100% y 30-59%, respectivamente); casas construidas con materiales perecederos (RM= 2.85, 95% IC 1.62-5.01); localización de la casa en la periferia de la localidad (RM= 6.23, 95% IC 3.50-11.0); dormir en el suelo (RM= 2.98, 95% IC 1.78-5.01); dormir con dos o más personas en la misma cama (RM= 1.85, 95% CI 1.09-3.14); no uso de mosquiteros (RM= 2.39, 95% IC 1.18-4.83, P< 0.003), uso de mosquiteros con agujeros (RM= 13.93, 95 IC 2.48-78.01); viajes fuera de la localidad de residencia (RM= 9.16, 95% IC 1.98-42.2); y casos previos de paludismo en la casa (RM= 5.84, 95% IC 3.33-10.22). CONCLUSIONES: El riesgo para la infección de paludismo se asoció a factores socioculturales y ambientales que incrementan la exposición de los individuos a la picadura de mosquitos. Un riesgo mayor de infectarse por paludismo ocurrió en la periferia de la localidad y por transmisión intradomiciliaria probablemente a causa de los familiares asintomáticos con recaídas.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of demographic, socioeconomic and ecological factors in malaria transmission in the most important residual transmission focus in Mexico, located in the state of Oaxaca. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The extension of the focus was determined by a spatial and time analysis of the distribution of malaria cases in the state between 1998 and 1999 using a Geographical Information System. A malaria transmission intensity index (MTII) was constructed based on the total number of cases during the study period and the duration and frequency of transmission outbreaks within the villages. The relationship between local determinants and malaria transmission intensity was investigated using multinomial and ordered logistic models. RESULTS: The distribution of villages according to their MTII was: 325 high, 341 medium, 142 low and 717 with no transmission. Localities of high MTII were associated with areas having a tropical climate with summer rains and low water evaporation. Most high MTII villages were located in elevations between 200 and 500 m above sea level, in the area around Pochutla City. The amount of temporary streams in the neighborhood of localities had a highly significant positive association with the MTII. Distance to roads was only significant in the high malaria MTII stratum. CONCLUSIONS: The main factors determining malaria transmission in the focus are related to good conditions for the breeding of mosquito vectors. The existence of short-range population movements around Pochutla, the main economically active city in the area, indicates the necessity to implement a system of epidemiological surveillance to halt the dispersion of new outbreaks.

OBJETIVO: Investigar la participación de factores demográficos, socio-económicos y ecológicos en la transmisión de la malaria en el foco de transmisión residual más importante en México, localizado en el estado de Oaxaca. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: La extensión del foco se determinó por medio de un análisis espacio-temporal de la distribución de casos de malaria en el estado entre 1998 y 1999, usando un Sistema de Información Geográfico. Un índice de intensidad de transmisión de malaria (MTII, por sus siglas en inglés) se construyó basado en el número total de casos durante el periodo del estudio y la duración y frecuencia de brotes de transmisión dentro de las localidades. La relación de determinantes locales con el MTII se investigó por medio de modelos multinomiales logísticos. RESULTADOS: La distribución de localidades según su MTII fue de 325 alto, 341 medio, 142 bajo y 717 sin transmisión. Localidades con MTII alto estuvieron asociadas a las áreas de clima tropical con lluvias en verano y evaporación baja. La mayoría de las localidades con MTII alto se localizaron a elevaciones entre 200 y 500 msnm, en el área alrededor de la ciudad de Pochutla. La cantidad de arroyos temporales en la vecindad de localidades tuvo una asociación positiva significativa con el MTII. La cercanía a carreteras de localidades con MTII alto fue significativa. CONCLUSIONES: Los factores principales que determinan la transmisión de la malaria en el foco están relacionados con las condiciones favorables para la cría de mosquitos vectores. La participación de movimientos de población de rango cortos alrededor de Pochutla, la principal ciudad económicamente activa en el área, indica la necesidad de implementar un sistema de vigilancia epidemiológica para detener la dispersión de nuevos brotes.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of demographic, socioeconomic and ecological factors in malaria transmission in the most important residual transmission focus in Mexico, located in the state of Oaxaca. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The extension of the focus was determined by a spatial and time analysis of the distribution of malaria cases in the state between 1998 and 1999 using a Geographical Information System. A malaria transmission intensity index (MTII) was constructed based on the total number of cases during the study period and the duration and frequency of transmission outbreaks within the villages. The relationship between local determinants and malaria transmission intensity was investigated using multinomial and ordered logistic models. RESULTS: The distribution of villages according to their MTII was: 325 high, 341 medium, 142 low and 717 with no transmission. Localities of high MTII were associated with areas having a tropical climate with summer rains and low water evaporation. Most high MTII villages were located in elevations between 200 and 500 m above sea level, in the area around Pochutla City. The amount of temporary streams in the neighborhood of localities had a highly significant positive association with the MTII. Distance to roads was only significant in the high malaria MTII stratum. CONCLUSIONS: The main factors determining malaria transmission in the focus are related to good conditions for the breeding of mosquito vectors. The existence of short-range population movements around Pochutla, the main economically active city in the area, indicates the necessity to implement a system of epidemiological surveillance to halt the dispersion of new outbreaks.

OBJETIVO: Investigar la participación de factores demográficos, socio-económicos y ecológicos en la transmisión de la malaria en el foco de transmisión residual más importante en México, localizado en el estado de Oaxaca. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: La extensión del foco se determinó por medio de un análisis espacio-temporal de la distribución de casos de malaria en el estado entre 1998 y 1999, usando un Sistema de Información Geográfico. Un índice de intensidad de transmisión de malaria (MTII, por sus siglas en inglés) se construyó basado en el número total de casos durante el periodo del estudio y la duración y frecuencia de brotes de transmisión dentro de las localidades. La relación de determinantes locales con el MTII se investigó por medio de modelos multinomiales logísticos. RESULTADOS: La distribución de localidades según su MTII fue de 325 alto, 341 medio, 142 bajo y 717 sin transmisión. Localidades con MTII alto estuvieron asociadas a las áreas de clima tropical con lluvias en verano y evaporación baja. La mayoría de las localidades con MTII alto se localizaron a elevaciones entre 200 y 500 msnm, en el área alrededor de la ciudad de Pochutla. La cantidad de arroyos temporales en la vecindad de localidades tuvo una asociación positiva significativa con el MTII. La cercanía a carreteras de localidades con MTII alto fue significativa. CONCLUSIONES: Los factores principales que determinan la transmisión de la malaria en el foco están relacionados con las condiciones favorables para la cría de mosquitos vectores. La participación de movimientos de población de rango cortos alrededor de Pochutla, la principal ciudad económicamente activa en el área, indica la necesidad de implementar un sistema de vigilancia epidemiológica para detener la dispersión de nuevos brotes.

Abstract: Introduction: Currently, there are a number of methodological alternatives to find out the dynamics, the extension and the levels of drug use in the general population. The trends on drug use in our country llave registered important variations in the last 25 years. Among the most outstanding of these trends are: the high and stable use of marijuana, the increase in cocaine use and a decrease in the use of inhalants. Recently an increase in the use of these stimulants has been registered. The different studies show that these trends present some variations, since different group populations with different characteristics have been studied. This is the case of the data obtained by the Drug Information Reporting System -IRSD-which detects users with specific characteristics (regular drug users and advanced cases of addiction). Based on the facts mentioned above, the intention of this article is to present the main trends on drug use in Mexico City within the period between 1986 and 2003, according to the drug Information reporting System -DIRS- and to analyze these trends compared to other studies with different types of population. Background: The Information Reporting System on Drugs IRSD is a mechanism used to obtain data coming from diverse agencies that are related to the problem of the use of drugs; such agencies belong to the health sector or to the agencies of law enforcement. The main advantages of this type of systems are a low cost of operation -since it works with the infrastructure of the institutions that mainly conform the system- its easy application and that it provides current and fast information on the phenomenon. The continuous operation of the IRSD allows the accumulation of data with a sequence which makes possible the analysis of the trends on drug use, the identification of new groups at high risk and new drugs in the market. It also allows to identify the design of the preventive actions derived from the continuous analysis of information coming from its data bases. Mexico City has its own Drug Information Reporting System -IRSD- since 1986 coordinated by the National Institute of Psychiatry Ramon de la Fuente. Its objective is to count on a periodic and homogenous source of information which can be used as a diagnosis tool to design suitable programs of prevention appropriate to the Mexican population from a health perspective. The IRSD carries out semester evaluations of the phenomenon and has done now a total of 34. Method: Sample description: IRSD information between 1986 and June 2003 was used. This data base is conformed by 16,377 studied cases. It is a considered as «case» any person who recognizes to have consumed at least once in life some drug with the deliberate purpose of being intoxicated. The cases are also excluded from accidental or occupational exhibition and when only alcohol and tobacco have been consumed. Instrument: The Information is obtained from an individual scale applied twice a year, in health and justice agencies. This schedule collects information on the following aspects: socio-demographic profiles of the users, the reason for entering the institution, problems associated with the drug use and patterns of consumption of 12 drugs. For this article, only the information corresponding to the pattern of consumption was used to identify the trends. The analysis includes the information compiled by the IRSD during the period of 1986 and the first semester of 2003. Procedure: The instrument is applied twice a year, in periods of 30 days, during the months of June and November to any one who uses drugs and has entered the health and justice agencies for such reason. Once the period of information gathering is over, the applied instruments are sent by all the participant institutions to the National Institute of Psychiatry for their processing and analysis. Finally, the results are reintegrated into a report which is distributed among the participant institutions and people interested in this problem. Results: The analysis of the trends on drug use observed by the IRSD during the period 1986-2003 shows the following: Marijuana and inhalants reach the level of higher consumption for all drugs until the second semester of 1997. In the following years there is a decrease for these substances, particularly for inhalants. The trend of cocaine use shows significant changes. The first important increase in the levels of use was observed between the years of 1993 and 1997. At the end of this period the use of cocaine was reported by every 40 of 100 users. The following year this proportion went up to 63, which represents an increase of more than 50 per cent. From this year and up to date the trend shows a stable behavior with similar levels of use. In regard to hallucinogens low levels of consumption have been observed, during the 15 years of evaluation by the IRSD. Approximately five of 100 cases report their use by semester. Sedatives and tranquilizers show the highest increase during the first semester of 1993, with 28 users for every 100 cases; since then a decrease in consumption has been observed. The consumption of stimulants has presented a very irregular trend through the evaluations. For heroin use a very low percentage of consumption is observed with one out of every 100 cases. There was a slight increase only in two evaluations during the first semester of 1992 and 1993. Conclusions: The most outstanding results regarding the tendencies of consumption of addictive substances is the increase of cocaine use at the beginning of the nineties and has always showed a tendency do increase. In the last evaluation certain stability in its consumption, is observed, at least in the last two years. It is important to emphasize that the increase in the consumption of cocaine may probably be associated to its availability in Mexico as well as that for its derivatives. Equally significant within this period of evaluation is the decrease of inhalant consumption, specially during 1999. Some studies show a possible substitution of these substances by cocaine and or its derivatives. The trends of drug use provided by the IRSD must be interpreted taking into account that the drug user population included in the evaluations belongs to a sector that does not represent the whole universe of users in the general population. However the trends of drug use reported by the IRSD are in agreement with those reported by the surveys in general and school population, where marijuana, cocaine and inhalants were reported as the drugs of greater use among the Mexican population. It is important to note that when the lack of financial and or human resources become real obstacles to carry out sophisticated, extensive periodic studies to evaluate drug use, a system of this type is a valuable alternative for the developing countries.

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