Abstract The Colombian Chapter of the Alliance-for-a-Cavity-Free-Future (Col-ACFF) has been conducting a health promotion and caries prevention program among young children in four vulnerable Colombian municipalities (baseline data from 2012–2014). This study aimed to quantify socioeconomic inequalities in early childhood caries (ECC) and examine the potential role of daily fluoride-toothpaste use, previous-year dental-care visit, and nutrition/diet-related aspects. The study sample included 1344 children aged 1–5 years. Inequalities in the age-standardized prevalence rates of and mean number of tooth surfaces affected by moderate/extensive (dME) and initial (dIME) caries (defined using the ICDAS-merged-epi criteria) by household income and level of education were examined using the relative index of inequality (RII) and the slope index of inequality (SII). Approximately one-third of the children included in this study exhibited dME, while 84% exhibited dIME. The majority of outcomes exhibited social gradients, and significant relative (RII) and absolute (SII) inequalities in ECC were observed. The SII estimate indicated an absolute difference of 12.4% in the prevalence of moderate/extensive carious lesions among children living in households with the lowest compared to the highest education levels [SII: 12.4; 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.7–22.1]. These children were also 6.7 times more likely to exhibit dIME compared to those living in households with higher levels of education (SII:6.73 95% CI: 4.18–9.29). Daily use of fluoride toothpastes, dental care visits in the previous year, and nutrition/diet-related factors played a limited role in ECC inequalities. In conclusion, significant ECC inequalities were observed in these vulnerable populations, highlighting the importance of upstream and downstream interventions that raise awareness among stakeholders and improve community- and individual-based practices to address this. AllianceforaCavityFreeFuture Alliance for Cavity Free Future ColACFF Col ACFF (Col-ACFF baseline 2012–2014. 20122014 2012–2014 . 2012 2014 2012–2014) (ECC fluoridetoothpaste toothpaste previousyear year dentalcare visit nutrition/dietrelated nutritiondietrelated nutrition/diet related nutrition diet aspects 134 15 1 5 1– years agestandardized age standardized moderateextensive moderate extensive dME (dME (dIME defined ICDASmergedepi ICDAS merged epi criteria RII (RII SII. onethird one third 84 gradients (SII 124 12 4 12.4 [SII 95 CI (CI) 2.7–22.1. 27221 2.7–22.1 2 7 22 2.7–22.1] 67 6 6. SII6.73 SII673 6.73 73 (SII:6.7 4.18–9.29. 418929 4.18–9.29 18 9 29 4.18–9.29) toothpastes conclusion populations community individualbased individual based 2012201 2012–201 201 dietrelated nutritiondiet 13 8 12. (CI 2722 2.7–22. SII6 SII6.7 SII67 673 (SII:6. 41892 4.18–9.2 201220 2012–20 20 272 2.7–22 SII6. (SII:6 4189 4.18–9. 20122 2012–2 27 2.7–2 (SII: 418 4.18–9 2012– 2.7– 41 4.18– 2.7 4.18 2. 4.1 4.

Abstract Policy evaluation and guidance on fluoride use and sugar consumption in Latin American and Caribbean countries (LACC) may provide a scientific evidence basis for policymakers, dental professionals, civil society organizations and individuals committed to improving public oral health. A cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate the extent of implementation of policies/guidelines on fluoride use, and sugar consumption in LACC. The study had two stages. First a questionnaire covering four major areas was developed: fluoridation of public water supplies; salt fluoridation; fluoride dentifrices, and sugar consumption. Then, the questionnaire was applied to collect data among representative participants in public oral health from LACC. Ninety-six participants from 18 LACC answered the questionnaire. One-hundred seventy documents were attached, and 285 links of websites were provided by the respondents. Implementation of policies and guidelines on water and table salt fluoridation and processed and ultra-processed food consumption were found in most countries, with some issues in the consensus and coverage. Thus, differences were identified in the extent of implementation of public oral health strategies on sugar consumption and fluoridation among the countries. There is no consensus on the policies in LACC to reduce sugar consumption and for the use of fluoride. A few policies and guidelines were applied in isolated countries, with a variety of strategies and standards. For future actions, it will be important to encourage the development of strategies and public policies within countries, and to evaluate the effectiveness of existing policies in reducing dental caries and in improving oral health in LACC. (LACC policymakers professionals crosssectional cross sectional policiesguidelines stages developed supplies dentifrices Then Ninetysix Ninety six 1 Onehundred One hundred attached 28 respondents ultraprocessed ultra coverage Thus standards actions 2

Abstract The association between income inequality and dental caries on early childhood in Colombia was evaluated using a multi-level analysis. We analyzed data from the latest national oral survey (2014) and information about income in absolute and relative terms on a state-level. The outcomes were caries experience, and untreated caries. A multilevel logistic regression model was used (2 levels) with children/households nested within states. Age, gender, area-level socioeconomic position (SEP), household income and health insurance regime were the level 1 explanatory variables. For level 2, variables were the Gini coefficient, Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Data from 5.250 children, aged 1, 3 and 5 years were evaluated. Prevalence of caries experience and untreated caries was 36.9% and 33.0% respectively. Both outcomes showed significant associations with age, low SEP and belonging to the subsidized health insurance regime: untreated dental caries was associated with living in low and very low SEP (OR: 1.72; 95%CI 1.42, 2.07 and OR: 1.69; 95%CI 1.36, 2.09 respectively), and subsidized health insurance scheme (OR: 1.58; 95%CI 1.11, 2.24). When the Gini, GDP and UBN indicators were included in the models, no significant associations were found.

Resumen Evaluamos la asociación entre inequidad en los ingresos y caries de la infancia temprana en Colombia, utilizando un análisis multinivel. Analizamos datos del último estudio nacional de salud bucal (2014) e información sobre ingresos en términos absolutos y relativos a nivel departamental. Los desenlaces fueron experiencia de caries y caries no tratada. Se utilizó un modelo de regresión logística multinivel con dos niveles: niños/familias (nivel 1) anidados en departamentos (nivel 2). En el nivel 1 se consideraron variables de edad, sexo, posición socioeconómica (PSE) de la vivienda, ingresos del hogar y régimen de aseguramiento en salud. Para el nivel 2 las variables fueron coeficiente Gini, Necesidades Básicas Insatisfechas (NBI) y Producto Interno Bruto (PIB). Se evaluaron datos de 5.250 niños de 1, 3 y 5 años, 36.9% tenían experiencia de caries y 33.0% caries no tratada. Los desenlaces mostraron asociaciones significativas con edad, PSE baja del hogar y pertenecer al régimen subsidiado de salud. Para caries no tratada se encontraron asociaciones con PSE baja o muy baja (OR: 1.72; IC95% 1.42, 2.07 y OR: 1.69; IC95% 1.36, 2.09 respectivamente) y régimen subsidiado de salud (OR: 1.58; IC95% 1.11, 2.24). No se encontraron asociaciones significativas con indicadores de coeficiente Gini, PIB y NBI.

Abstract The association between income inequality and dental caries on early childhood in Colombia was evaluated using a multi-level analysis. We analyzed data from the latest national oral survey (2014) and information about income in absolute and relative terms on a state-level. The outcomes were caries experience, and untreated caries. A multilevel logistic regression model was used (2 levels) with children/households nested within states. Age, gender, area-level socioeconomic position (SEP), household income and health insurance regime were the level 1 explanatory variables. For level 2, variables were the Gini coefficient, Unsatisfied Basic Needs (UBN) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Data from 5.250 children, aged 1, 3 and 5 years were evaluated. Prevalence of caries experience and untreated caries was 36.9% and 33.0% respectively. Both outcomes showed significant associations with age, low SEP and belonging to the subsidized health insurance regime: untreated dental caries was associated with living in low and very low SEP (OR: 1.72; 95%CI 1.42, 2.07 and OR: 1.69; 95%CI 1.36, 2.09 respectively), and subsidized health insurance scheme (OR: 1.58; 95%CI 1.11, 2.24). When the Gini, GDP and UBN indicators were included in the models, no significant associations were found.

Resumen Evaluamos la asociación entre inequidad en los ingresos y caries de la infancia temprana en Colombia, utilizando un análisis multinivel. Analizamos datos del último estudio nacional de salud bucal (2014) e información sobre ingresos en términos absolutos y relativos a nivel departamental. Los desenlaces fueron experiencia de caries y caries no tratada. Se utilizó un modelo de regresión logística multinivel con dos niveles: niños/familias (nivel 1) anidados en departamentos (nivel 2). En el nivel 1 se consideraron variables de edad, sexo, posición socioeconómica (PSE) de la vivienda, ingresos del hogar y régimen de aseguramiento en salud. Para el nivel 2 las variables fueron coeficiente Gini, Necesidades Básicas Insatisfechas (NBI) y Producto Interno Bruto (PIB). Se evaluaron datos de 5.250 niños de 1, 3 y 5 años, 36.9% tenían experiencia de caries y 33.0% caries no tratada. Los desenlaces mostraron asociaciones significativas con edad, PSE baja del hogar y pertenecer al régimen subsidiado de salud. Para caries no tratada se encontraron asociaciones con PSE baja o muy baja (OR: 1.72; IC95% 1.42, 2.07 y OR: 1.69; IC95% 1.36, 2.09 respectivamente) y régimen subsidiado de salud (OR: 1.58; IC95% 1.11, 2.24). No se encontraron asociaciones significativas con indicadores de coeficiente Gini, PIB y NBI.

ABSTRACT: Aim: To describe the role of Oral Health in national strategies and health policies for the comprehensive management and control of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) in the 38 member states of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Method: A scoping review was carried out, according to the PRISMA-ScR guideline. Government reports, clinical practice guidelines, official WHO and OECD documents, and review articles identified in PubMED and LiLACS were included up to December 2020. The following were synthesized: 1) Inclusion of Oral Health in national plans or clinical guidelines for DM2, 2) Dental benefits and coverage for DM2 and 3) Health indicators associated with the control of DM2. Results: 84 documents were included. 1) Oral Health is incorporated in the national plans of 22 OECD countries for the control of DM2. 2) Of these, 8 provide dental care with high coverage for DM2. 3) OECD countries with high dental coverage have the best indicators of metabolic control of DM2. Conclusions: In the framework of Global Health, countries that do not have Oral Health integrated could benefit if they add dental care in the comprehensive management and control of DM2.

RESUMEN: Objetivo: Describir el rol de la Salud Oral en las estrategias nacionales y políticas sanitarias para el manejo integral y control de Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 2 (DM2) en los 38 Estados miembros de la Organización para la Cooperación y Desarrollo Económico (OCDE). Materiales y Método: Se realizó una revisión sistemática exploratoria, siguiendo la pauta PRISMA-ScR. Se incluyeron reportes gubernamentales, guías de práctica clínica, documentos oficiales OMS y OCDE, y artículos identificados en PubMED y LiLACS hasta diciembre de 2020. Se sintetizó: 1) Inclusión de la Salud Oral en planes nacionales o guías clínicas de DM2, 2) Prestaciones y cobertura odontológica para DM2 y 3) Indicadores de salud asociados al control de DM2. Resultados: 84 documentos fueron incluidos. 1) La Salud Oral está incorporada en los planes nacionales de 22 países OCDE para el control de DM2. 2) De estos, 8 garantizan la atención odontológica con alta cobertura para DM2. 3) Países OCDE con alta cobertura odontológica presentan los mejores indicadores de control metabólico de DM2. Conclusiones: En el marco de la Salud Global, países que no tienen integrada la salud oral podrían beneficiarse si incorporan la atención odontológica con cobertura universal en el manejo integral y control de la DM2.

Abstract This review aimed to describe the importance of the first 1000 days of a child’s life as a golden period for interventions and actions to prevent dental caries and other chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) throughout the life course and highlight that the first 450 days of life could be even more important for oral health. During the first 1000 days of life (pregnancy and first two years of life), health care providers can identify unhealthy lifestyles, behaviors, and their determinants. Bearing in mind contextual factors like socioeconomic conditions and cultural aspects, this is a unique period to work together with the family and identify opportunities for adopting healthy habits that might last throughout the life of the expected or newborn child. This is a “window of opportunity” for the prevention of chronic NCDs of both systemic and oral origin, such as overweight, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and dental caries. In fact, to effectively prevent dental caries, pregnancy and the first 6 months of a child’s life (first 450 days) should be considered the critical period to work together with families to facilitate the adoption of healthy habits. Knowledge about the first thousand days of life is essential and represents a crucial period for the implementation of actions and interventions that will guarantee good oral and general health development that can persist throughout life.

RESUMO Objetivos. Quantificar as desigualdades socioeconômicas na mortalidade por COVID-19 na Colômbia e avaliar até que ponto o tipo de cobertura de assistência à saúde, a carga de comorbidades, o local de residência e a etnia contribuíram para tais desigualdades. Métodos. Analisamos dados de uma coorte retrospectiva de casos de COVID-19. Calculamos os índices relativo e angular de desigualdade (RII e SII, respectivamente) utilizando modelos de sobrevivência em todos os participantes, estratificando-os por idade e gênero. Calculamos o percentual de redução no RII e no SII após ajuste para fatores possivelmente relevantes. Resultados. Identificamos desigualdades significativas na coorte como um todo e por subgrupos (idade e gênero). As desigualdades foram maiores para adultos mais jovens e decaíram gradualmente com a idade, indo de um RII de 5,65 (intervalo de confiança [IC] de 95% = 3,25; 9,82] nos participantes com idade inferior a 25 anos a um RII de 1,49 [IC 95% = 1,41; 1,58] nas pessoas com 65 anos ou mais. O tipo de cobertura de assistência à saúde foi o fator mais importante, representando 20% e 59% das desigualdades relativa e absoluta, respectivamente. Conclusões. Desigualdades socioeconômicas significativas afetaram a mortalidade por COVID-19 na Colômbia. O tipo de cobertura de saúde parece ser o principal fator contribuinte para essas desigualdades, impondo desafios à elaboração de estratégias de saúde pública.

ABSTRACT Objectives. To quantify socioeconomic inequalities in COVID-19 mortality in Colombia and to assess the extent to which type of health insurance, comorbidity burden, area of residence, and ethnicity account for such inequalities. Methods. We analyzed data from a retrospective cohort of COVID-19 cases. We estimated the relative and slope indices of inequality (RII and SII) using survival models for all participants and stratified them by age and gender. We calculated the percentage reduction in RII and SII after adjustment for potentially relevant factors. Results. We identified significant inequalities for the whole cohort and by subgroups (age and gender). Inequalities were higher among younger adults and gradually decreased with age, going from RII of 5.65 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.25, 9.82) in participants younger than 25 years to RII of 1.49 (95% CI = 1.41, 1.58) in those aged 65 years and older. Type of health insurance was the most important factor, accounting for 20% and 59% of the relative and absolute inequalities, respectively. Conclusions. Significant socioeconomic inequalities exist in COVID-19 mortality in Colombia. Health insurance appears to be the main contributor to those inequalities, posing challenges for the design of public health strategies.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Cuantificar las desigualdades socioeconómicas en la mortalidad por COVID-19 en Colombia y evaluar en qué medida el tipo de seguro de salud, la carga de enfermedades concomitantes, la zona de residencia y el origen étnico explican estas desigualdades. Métodos. Se analizaron los datos de una cohorte retrospectiva de casos de COVID-19. Se estimó el índice relativo de desigualdad (IRD) y el índice de desigualdad basado en la pendiente (IDP) utilizando modelos de supervivencia con todos los participantes, y estratificándolos por edad y sexo. El porcentaje de reducción del IRD y el IDP se calculó después de ajustar con respecto a factores que podrían ser relevantes. Resultados. Se pusieron en evidencia desigualdades notables en toda la cohorte y en los subgrupos (edad y sexo). Las desigualdades fueron mayores en los adultos más jóvenes y disminuyeron de manera gradual con la edad, pasando de un IRD de 5,65 (intervalo de confianza de 95% [IC 95%] = 3,25-9,82) en los participantes menores de 25 años a un IRD de 1,49 (IC 95% = 1,41-1,58) en los mayores de 65 años. El tipo de seguro de salud fue el factor más importante, al cual se atribuyó 20% de las desigualdades relativas y 59% de las absolutas. Conclusiones. La mortalidad por COVID-19 en Colombia presenta importantes desigualdades socioeconómicas. El seguro de salud aparece como el factor que más contribuye a estas desigualdades, lo cual plantea retos al diseño de las estrategias de salud pública.

Resumen El 2 de junio de 2021, el Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social de Colombia expidió la Resolución 777, mediante la cual se determinan las condiciones para el reinicio de todas las actividades económicas y sociales restringidas. Asimismo, en esta resolución se define el Índice de resiliencia epidemiológica municipal (IREM) como la herramienta para apoyar la toma de decisiones relacionadas con esta reactivación económica en medio del tercer pico epidémico de la COVID-19 en el país. El objetivo de este artículo es hacer un análisis crítico de los aspectos técnicos del IREM y explorar la conveniencia de su implementación como soporte del reinicio de las actividades económicas y sociales propuesto en la resolución. Dentro de este análisis crítico se destaca la falta de una clara definición de resiliencia epidemiológica que se ajuste a la literatura científica. Además, se cuestiona tanto la validez de apariencia, contenido y constructo del índice global, como la validez del constructo de sus dimensiones y, por tanto, la pertinencia de usarlo como herramienta para definir dicho reinicio.

Abstract On June 2, 2021, the Colombian Ministry of Health and Social Protection, through Resolution No. 777, laid down the requirements to resume all restricted economic and social activities. Similarly, said Resolution established the Municipal Epidemiological Resilience Index (IREM by its acronym in Spanish) as a tool to support decision-making regarding this economic reactivation amid the third epidemic peak of COVID-19 in the country. The purpose of this article is to perform a critical analysis of the technical aspects of the IREM and to explore the feasibility of its implementation as a support for the resumption of economic and social activities as proposed in the Resolution. The present critical analysis emphasizes on the lack of a clear definition of epidemiological resilience that is consistent with the scientific literature. Furthermore, the face and content validity of the index, as well as the construct validity of the index and of its dimensions, are called into question and, therefore, the feasibility of using it to determine said resumption.

Abstract Dental caries can be effectively managed and prevented from developing into cavitated lesions while preserving tooth structure at all levels. However, the strong correlation between caries and socioeconomic factors may compromise the efficacy of preventive strategies. The high prevalence of persistent inequalities in dental caries in Latin American and Caribbean countries (LACC) is a matter of concern. The estimates of the burden of disease in some countries in this region are outdated or absent. This paper aims to summarize and present the final recommendations of a regional Consensus for Dental Caries Prevalence, Prospects, and Challenges for LACC. This consensus is based on four articles that were written by a team of Latin American experts, reviewed by dental associations, and presented and discussed in two consensus events. The following domains were explored: epidemiology, risk factors, prevention strategies, and management of dental caries with a focus on restorative procedures. Dental caries can manifest throughout the lifespan of an individual, making it a matter of concern for infants, children, adults, and older people alike. The prevalence rates of untreated caries in deciduous and permanent teeth are high in many parts of the world, including LACCs. Previous evidence suggests that the prevalence of dental caries in 12-year-olds is moderate to high in most Latin American countries. Moreover, the prevalence of treatment needs and dental caries in the adult and elderly population can also be regarded as high in this region. The risk/protective factors (e.g., sugar consumption, exposure to fluoride, and oral hygiene) probably operate similarly in all LACCs, although variations in the interplay of these factors in some countries and within the same country cannot be ruled out. Although salt and water fluoridation programs are implemented in many countries, there is a need for implementation of a surveillance policy. There is also room for improvement with regard to the introduction of minimal intervention techniques in practice and public health programs. Dental caries is a marker of social disadvantage, and oral health promotion programs and interventions aimed at reducing the burden of dental caries in LACCs must consider the complexity of the socioeconomic dynamics in this region. There is an urgent need to promote engagement of stakeholders, policymakers, medical personnel, universities, dental associations, community members, and industries to develop regional plans that enhance the oral health agenda for LACCs. A list of recommendations has been presented to underpin strategies aimed at reducing the prevalence and severity of dental caries and improving the quality of life of the impacted LACC population in the near future.

Resumen Antecedentes: La violencia en Colombia tiene una historia de más de 50 años. se calcula que entre 1985 y 2012 han fallecido 220.000 colombianos y cerca de 6.000.000 han sido desplazados por la violencia. Objetivo: Describir y comparar las prevalencias de algunos problemas y trastornos mentales en la población adulta colombiana teniendo en cuenta las características del municipio respecto a su historia de violencia o conflicto armado. Métodos: Se utilizaron los resultados de los adultos (mayores de 18 años) sobre algunos problemas y trastornos mentales de la ENSM de 2015, y se clasificaron los municipios según la presencia y la intensidad del conflicto utilizando la clasificación propuesta por la CERAC. Se realizó la medición de trastorno (con el CIDI-CAPI), problemas (con AUDIT, PCL modificado) y consumo de sustancias psicoactivas. Resultados: Se entrevistó a 10.870 personas, de las que 5.429 no habían cambiado de residencia. El 21,8% de los municipios sufrían conflicto permanente; el 65,5%, interrumpido, y solamente el 12,7% había sido pacificado o no tenía conflicto. La intensidad del conflicto se reportó alta en el 31,8%. Los municipios violentos presentaban prevalencias más altas de trastornos de ansiedad, depresivos, posible trastorno de estrés postraumático y consumo de cigarrillo. El consumo de alcohol era más frecuente en municipios con menor intensidad del conflicto. Conclusiones: Los municipios clasificados como con altos niveles de violencia presentaban mayor prevalencia de trastornos mentales y de la mayoría de los problemas mentales.

Abstract Background: Violence in Colombia has a history of over 50 years. Between 1985 and 2012 an estimated of 220,000 Colombians have died and about 6,000,000 have been displaced by violence. Objective: To describe and compare the prevalence of some problems and mental disorders in the adult population in Colombia, taking into account the characteristics of the municipality, as regards its history of violence or armed conflict. Methods: The results for adults (over 18 years) of some problems and mental disorders were taken from the ENSM-2015. The municipalities were classified according to the presence and intensity of the conflict using the classification proposed by the CERAC. Disorders were measured using CIDI-CAPI, and problems with AUDIT, modified PCL (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist). An estimate was also made of psychoactive substances consumption. Results: A total of 10,870 people were interviewed, of whom 5,429 had not changed residence. There was had permanent conflict in 21.8% of the municipalities, 65.5% had a discontinued conflict, and only 12.7% had been pacified or had no conflict. The intensity of the conflict was reported as high by 31.8% of the people. Violent municipalities have a higher prevalence of anxiety disorders, depression, possible Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and smoking. Alcohol consumption was more common in municipalities with less intense conflict. Conclusions: The municipalities classified as having high levels of violence have a higher prevalence of mental disorders and the majority of the mental problems.

Introducción. La expectativa de vida al nacer es un indicador que se ha utilizado para hacerle seguimiento al desarrollo humano dentro de los países y entre ellos. Este ha venido incrementándose gracias a los progresos en el campo de la medicina y la tecnología. Sin embargo, el acceso a la atención, la tecnología y los factores determinantes sociales que mejoran el estado de salud, han sido desiguales entre departamentos y países. Objetivo. Estimar la ´inequidad' de la expectativa de vida, para cada ´departamento' de Colombia según sexo, en el periodo 2000 a 2009. Materiales y métodos. Se llevó a cabo un estudio ecológico. Se estimó la expectativa de vida al nacer por ´departamentos' en Colombia, mediante el método de las tablas de vida, entre 2000 y 2009. Las fuentes de datos fueron los registros de defunción y las series de población estimadas a partir del censo del 2005 del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE). Se estimó la ´inequidad' en la expectativa de vida por ´departamentos', comparando con el mejor referente mundial en los años 2000, 2006 y 2009, y con el mejor referente interno en el periodo 2000 a 2009. Resultados. Se encontraron años perdidos de vida potencial que fueron hasta de 21 años en el periodo, al hacer la comparación con el mejor referente externo. La diferencia entre los ´departamentos' fue hasta de 15,3 años perdidos de vida potencial. Hubo ´departamentos' en los que aumentó la brecha de años perdidos de vida potencial. Conclusiones. Colombia mantiene grandes diferencias en los años perdidos de vida potencial entre sus ´departamentos'.

Introduction: Life expectancy is one of the measurements that have been used to monitor socioeconomic development within and among countries. During the last 30 years, life expectancy has increased worldwide mainly due to medical and technological developments. However, access to health care, new technologies and social determinants remain unevenly distributed among regions and countries in the world. Objective: To assess inequalities in life expectancy by gender and regions (departments) in Colombia between 2000 and 2009. Materials and methods: Ecological study. Life expectancy was estimated for each Colombian department using yearly life tables from 2000 to 2009. We used data from the death registries and the estimated population series, provided by the Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE). For the study period, estimates of life expectancy by departments were compared with those from Japan for the years 2000, 2006 and 2009, which is the country with the highest life expectancy in the world, and with the Colombian department with the highest life expectancy from 2000 to 2009. Results: Compared with the highest life expectancy in the world, Colombian departments showed differences ranged between 5.7 and 21 years. We found significant differences between departments, with the largest difference being 15.3 years. Additionally, in some departments life expectancy decreased during the analyzed period. Conclusions: This study identified differences in life expectancy in Colombian departments suggesting inequalities in health and living conditions among them. These differences increased in some departments during the period 2000-2009.

Objetivo Describir las diferencias en los años de vida perdidos en la expectativa de vida al nacer por Departamentos en Colombia, durante el periodo de estudio. Métodos Los datos sobre expectativa de vida al nacer por género, fueron tomados del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DAÑE) para los periodos: 1985-1990, 1995-2000 y 2000-2005. Los datos sobre el país con la mejor expectativa de vida en el mundo fue tomado de los reportes de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Los años de vida perdidos en expectativa de vida (AVPP) fueron estimados a partir de las diferencias relativas entre valores regionales y los mejores valores del mundo para los periodos de estudio. Resultados El número de AVPP tuvo una tendencia a disminuir en ambos géneros durante el periodo de estudio. Sin embargo hubo Departamentos en los cuales los AVPP fueron mayores para mujeres que para hombres en los tres periodos. Adicionalmente, el peor quintil de AVPP tuvo un valor medio de 18,98 ±2,36 AVPP para hombres y 18,45±2,43 AVPP para mujeres en 1985-1990; 16,99±1,7 AVPP para hombres y 16,01±1,46 para mujeres en 1995-2000; y 15,99±1,34 AVPP para hombres y 14,51 ±0,96 AVPP para mujeres en 2000-2005. Los valores para el mejor quintil de AVPP fueron respectivamente para hombres y mujeres: 7,41±0,65; 8,34±0,65 en 1985-1990; 7,22±0,62 y 8,59±0,31 en 1995-2000; y 7,72±0,58 y 8,89±0,67 en 2000-2005. Conclusiones Hubo diferencias en la expectativa de vida al nacer entre Departamentos y géneros en los tres periodos estudiados. Hubo disparidad en el numero de AVPP, comparando con el mejor país en el mundo, por Departamentos, durante los periodos de estudio.

Objectives Describing differences in years of life lost (LLY) regarding life expectancy at birth in Colombia amongst Departments during the study period. Methods Data about life expectancy at birth by gender were taken from the Colombian Statistics Administration Department (DAÑE) databases for 1985-1990, 1995-2000 and 2000-2005. Data about the country having the best world health expectancy value was taken from World Health Organisation Reports. LLY regarding life expectancy at birth (LEB) were estimated with relative differences between regional values and the best world value for the study periods. Results LLY tended to become reduced for both genders throughout the whole study period; however, LLY was higher for women than men in some departments during the three periods. The worst LLY quintile for 1985-1990 was 18.98±2.36 mean LLY value for men and 18.45±2.43 for women. Mean LLY value for men was 16.99±1.7 and 16.01+71.46 for women for 1995-2000 and mean 15.99±1.34 LLY for men and 14.51±0.96 LLY for women for 2000-2005. LLY values for the best quintile for men and women were 7.41±0.65; 8.34±0.65 in 1985-1990, 7.22±0.62 and 8.59±0.31 in 1995-2000 and 7.72±0.58 and 8.89±0.67 in 2000-2005, respectively. Conclusions There were differences in life expectancy at birth between departments and gender during the three periods studied. There was disparity regarding LLY compared to the best country in the world by department and gender in Colombia during the study periods.

Objectives Describing differences in years of life lost (LLY) regarding life expectancy at birth in Colombia amongst Departments during the study period. Methods Data about life expectancy at birth by gender were taken from the Colombian Statistics Administration Department (DAÑE) databases for 1985-1990, 1995-2000 and 2000-2005. Data about the country having the best world health expectancy value was taken from World Health Organisation Reports. LLY regarding life expectancy at birth (LEB) were estimated with relative differences between regional values and the best world value for the study periods. Results LLY tended to become reduced for both genders throughout the whole study period; however, LLY was higher for women than men in some departments during the three periods. The worst LLY quintile for 1985-1990 was 18.98+/-2.36 mean LLY value for men and 18.45+/-2.43 for women. Mean LLY value for men was 16.99+/-1.7 and 16.01+71.46 for women for 1995-2000 and mean 15.99+/-1.34 LLY for men and 14.51+/-0.96 LLY for women for 2000-2005. LLY values for the best quintile for men and women were 7.41+/-0.65; 8.34+/-0.65 in 1985-1990, 7.22+/-0.62 and 8.59+/-0.31 in 1995-2000 and 7.72+/0.58 and 8.89+/-0.67 in 2000-2005, respectively. Conclusions There were differences in life expectancy at birth between departments and gender during the three periods studied. There was disparity regarding LLY compared to the best country in the world by department and gender in Colombia during the study periods.

Objetivo Describir las diferencias en los años de vida perdidos en la expectativa de vida al nacer por Departamentos en Colombia, durante el periodo de estudio. Métodos Los datos sobre expectativa de vida al nacer por género, fueron tomados del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DAÑE) para los periodos: 1985-1990, 1995-2000 y 2000-2005. Los datos sobre el país con la mejor expectativa de vida en el mundo fue tomado de los reportes de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Los años de vida perdidos en expectativa de vida (AVPP) fueron estimados a partir de las diferencias relativas entre valores regionales y los mejores valores del mundo para los periodos de estudio. Resultados El número de AVPP tuvo una tendencia a disminuir en ambos géneros durante el periodo de estudio. Sin embargo hubo Departamentos en los cuales los AVPP fueron mayores para mujeres que para hombres en los tres periodos. Adicionalmente, el peor quintil de AVPP tuvo un valor medio de 18,98 ±2,36 AVPP para hombres y 18,45+/-2,43 AVPP para mujeres en 1985-1990; 16,99+/-1,7 AVPP para hombres y 16,01+/1,46 para mujeres en 1995-2000; y 15,99+/-1,34 AVPP para hombres y 14,51 +/-0,96 AVPP para mujeres en 2000-2005. Los valores para el mejor quintil de AVPP fueron respectivamente para hombres y mujeres: 7,41+/-0,65; 8,34+/-0,65 en 1985-1990; 7,22+/-0,62 y 8,59+/-0,31 en 1995-2000; y 7,72+/ 0,58 y 8,89+/-0,67 en 2000-2005. Conclusiones Hubo diferencias en la expectativa de vida al nacer entre Departamentos y géneros en los tres periodos estudiados. Hubo disparidad en el numero de AVPP, comparando con el mejor país en el mundo, por Departamentos, durante los periodos de estudio.

Objetivo Identificar inequidades de género en el acceso a los servicios de salud en el sistema de seguridad social en salud. Métodos Se realizó una evaluación de dos etapas de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares, antes y después de implementada la reforma al sistema de salud colombiano. Se identificaron variables socioeconómicas, de necesidad, acceso a los servicios y financiación. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo de las variables, se realizó la recodificación y creación de nuevas variables. Se hicieron análisis bivariados, comparando algunas variables por medio de Chi². Resultados La necesidad en salud sentida fue mayor en las mujeres en las dos encuestas. Las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres en la consulta por problema de salud no fueron significativas en 1994; en el 2000, consultaron el 73 % de los hombres y el 81 % de las mujeres (p<0.0001). Respecto al antecedente de hospitalización, la proporción de hombres y mujeres que utilizaron este servicio disminuyó en el 2000. En el 2000, las mujeres emplearon en mayor proporción los recursos propios como fuente de financiación. Por niveles de ingreso, las personas pertenecientes a los quintiles uno y dos emplearon los recursos propios como fuente de financiación de los servicios. Conclusiones Al comparar los dos períodos, se incrementó el total de consultas, más rápidamente en las mujeres. En el año 2000 las mujeres tuvieron más acceso al servicio de consulta. Las inequidades en el financiamiento de los servicios de salud por sexo han persistido aún después de implementada la reforma.

Objective Identifying gender-related inequities in gaining access to health services in the Colombian social health security system. Methods A two-stage evaluation of the National Household Survey was made, before and after the Colombian health system reform was implemented. Socioeconomic,needs, access to health services and financing variables were identified. A descriptive analysis of the variables was made, they were re-codified and new variables created. Bivariate analysis was done, comparing some variables by means of Chi². Results Needs in health were felt more by women in both surveys. Differences between males and females in consultation for health problems were not significant in 1994; 73 % of the males and 81 % of the females were consulted in 2000 (p<0.0001). Regarding antecedents of having been hospitalised, the percentage of males and females using this service became reduced during 2000. Females used their own resources more as the source of financing services in 2000. People belonging to the 1st and 2nd quintiles used their own resources as financing source in terms of income levels. Conclusions Comparing both periods, total consultations became increased (more rapidly in females). Females had greater access to consultation services in 2000. Gender-related inequities in financing health services have still persisted, even after the reform was implemented.