ABSTRACT One of the consequences of climate change is sea level change in coastal systems, which function as a baseline, where a variety of coastal processes operate at different time and space scales. The objective of the present research is to calculate the historic and current rate of sea level rise, from Limon tide gauge station’s data. Two methods were utilized for this purpose: Simple linear regression analysis and time series decomposition; with the first method, a rate of 2.32 mm/yr of sea level change was obtained for the time period 1952 to 1968; with the second one, a rate result of 3.41 mm/yr which is consequent with the existing publications. In the current period (2009 - 2021) a rate of 4.18 mm/yr was obtained with the first method and 4.28 mm/yr with the second method. The results gathered confirm the existence of an upward trend in sea level rise in the studied region. This situation should be considered when studying the transformation taking place in the coast, such as the coastal erosion identified in some of the Costa Rican Caribbean zone.

RESUMEN Entre las consecuencias del cambio climático en los sistemas costeros está el cambio del nivel del mar, el cual funciona como una línea base sobre la cual opera una variedad de procesos costeros, a diferentes escalas de tiempo y espacio. La presente investigación tiene por objetivo calcular la tasa histórica y actual de ascenso del nivel del mar a partir de datos de la estación mareográfica Limón. Para esto se utilizaron dos métodos: el análisis de regresión lineal simple y una descomposición de series temporales. Como resultado se obtuvo una tasa de cambio del nivel del mar para el período 1952 a 1968 de 2.32 mm/año con el primer método y 3.41 mm/año para el segundo método, que es consecuente con las publicaciones existentes. En el caso del período actual (2009 a 2021) se obtuvo una tasa de 4.18 mm/año para el primer método y 4.28 mm/año con el segundo método. Los resultados obtenidos confirman que existe una tendencia al aumento del nivel del mar en la región estudiada, situación que debe ser considerada al estudiar las transformaciones que están ocurriendo en la costa, como lo son la erosión costera identificada en algunas zonas del Caribe costarricense.

Resumen El propósito del estudio fue elaborar y validar competencias, metodologías y recursos didácticos para una nueva cultura hidroambiental en la gestión del riesgo de desastres en estudiantes y docentes costarricenses de II ciclo de la Escuela Excelencia Cahuita, Limón. La investigación se desarrolló con un enfoque cualitativo de carácter interpretativo y propositivo donde participaron nueve expertos nacionales e internacionales (3 en gestión de riesgos de desastres (grupo 1), 3 en cambio climático (grupo 2) y 3 en educación (grupo 3) a través de la aplicación del método Delphi que constó de 3 fases: preparatoria, consulta y consenso. Los resultados indican que los grupos 1 y 2 elaboraron 43 competencias para luego validar diez por cada grupo, el grupo 1 distribuyó las competencias en conceptuales, internas y externas, el grupo 2 solo competencias cognitivas, tanto para los niños como para los maestros, tomando en cuenta indicadores, recursos didácticos y metodologías. En la fase 3, el grupo 3, ajustó y validó las competencias elaboradas por los grupos 1 y 2 que consisten en 20 competencias, y una serie de recursos y metodologías. Se concluye que las competencias son un aporte que garantizará, en la medida de su práctica, una mejor preparación ante eventos de vulnerabilidad y riesgo causados por el cambio climático. El material educativo de referencia podría ajustarse para otras regiones de Costa Rica y de Latinoamérica.

Resumo Este estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver e validar competências, metodologias e recursos didáticos para uma nova cultura hidroambiental na gestão de riscos de desastres em estudantes e docentes da Costa Rica do II ciclo da Escola de Excelência Cahuita, Limón. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida com uma abordagem qualitativa de caráter interpretativo e proposital, onde participaram nove especialistas nacionais e internacionais (3 em gestão de risco de desastres (grupo 1), 3 em mudanças climáticas (grupo 2) e 3 na educação (grupo 3) através da aplicação do método Delphi que consistiu em 3 fases: preparatória, consulta e consenso. Os resultados indicam que os grupos 1 e 2 desenvolveram 43 competências e, em seguida, validaram dez para cada grupo, o grupo 1 distribuiu as competências em conceituais, internas e externas, o grupo 2 apenas competências cognitivas, tanto para crianças quanto para professores, levando em conta indicadores, recursos didáticos e metodologias. Na fase 3, o grupo 3 ajustou e validou as competências desenvolvidas pelos grupos 1 e 2, compostas por 20 competências, e uma série de recursos e metodologias. Conclui-se que as competências são uma contribuição que garantirá, na medida em que se pratica, uma melhor preparação para eventos de vulnerabilidade e risco causados pela mudança climática. O material educativo de referência poderia ser ajustado para outras regiões da Costa Rica e da América Latina.

Abstract The study was aimed to develop and validate competencies, methodologies, and teaching resources for a new hydro-environmental culture in disaster risk management for Costa Rican students and teachers of the second cycle of the Cahuita Excelencia Elementary School in Limón. The research was developed under an interpretive and propositional qualitative approach with the participation of nine national and international experts (3 in Disaster Risk Management (Group 1(, 3 in Climate Change (Group 2(, and 3 in Education (Group 3(), using the Delphi method which consisted of 3 phases: preparation, consultation, and consensus. Results indicate that Groups 1 and 2 developed 43 competencies, of which ten were validated by each group. Group 1 distributed competencies into conceptual, internal, and external, while Group 2 only distributed cognitive competencies, both for children and teachers, taking into account indicators, didactic resources, and methodologies. During Phase 3, Group 3 adjusted and validated the competencies developed by Groups 1 and 2, which consist of 20 competencies and a series of resources and methodologies. It is concluded that competencies will contribute to guarantee better preparation for vulnerability and risk events caused by climate change. The reference educational material could be adjusted to other regions of Costa Rica and Latin America.

Resumen (Introducción): A nivel global el 24 % de las playas arenosas del planeta se están erosionando. En el caso de América Latina no es un problema generalizado, pero sí severo en determinadas regiones. En la costa Caribe de Costa Rica se reportan 11 puntos críticos con erosión intensa. (Objetivo): Analizar los cambios en la línea de costa en el Caribe Sur de Costa Rica, con el fin de cuantificar los procesos de erosión y acreción y comprender la influencia de las corrientes litorales en la distribución del sedimento. (Metodología): Se basa en la cuantificación de los cambios en la línea de costa para el periodo 2005-2016 mediante la extensión DSAS, utilizando como proxi la línea de vegetación sobre la costa. (Resultados): El 54 % de la costa presenta estabilidad, un 23 % experimenta erosión y un 22 % acreción. Se presenta un proceso severo de erosión en el aeropuerto de Limón, al sureste Westfalia, en Cahuita, Puerto Vargas, Manzanillo y Gandoca. Se localizaron playas con importante acreción como Cieneguita al norte del espigón, playa Bananito, la playa próxima al río Dixibre, la playa entre la desembocadura de los ríos Estrella y Tuba, y un pequeño sector en Punta Cahuita. (Conclusiones): El Caribe Sur de Costa Rica experimenta procesos de erosión y acreción que se alternan, los mayores cambios están relacionados con la migración en las desembocaduras de importantes sistemas fluviales. Entre los sitios con mayor afectación están las áreas protegidas.

Abstract (Introduction): Globally 24 % of the planet's sandy beaches are eroding. In the case of Latin America, it is not a general problem, but it is severe in certain regions. On the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, 11 critical points with intense erosion are reported. (Objective): to analyze the changes in the coastline in the South Caribbean of Costa Rica, to quantify the erosion and accretion processes and to understand the influence of the littoral currents on the sediment distribution. (Methodology): It is based on the quantification of changes in the coastline for the period 2005-2016 through the DSAS extension, using the vegetation line on the coast as a proxy. (Results): 54% of the coastline is stable, 23 % experience erosion and 22 % accretion. There is a severe erosion process at the Limón airport, in the southeast of Westfalia, in Cahuita, Puerto Vargas, Manzanillo and Gandoca. Beaches with significant accretion were located, such as Cieneguita to the north of the breakwater, Bananito beach, the beach near the Dixibre river, the beach between the mouth of the Estrella and Tuba rivers and a small sector in Punta Cahuita. (Conclusions): The southern Caribbean of Costa Rica experiences alternating erosion and accretion processes, the greatest changes are related to migration to the mouths of important river systems. Among the most affected sites are protected areas.

Abstract: In tropical countries where both internal and external active geodynamic conditions exist and relief modeling is constantly changing, hillside processes are one of the most recurring natural hazards that cause human and economic losses each year. In Costa Rica, for example, these phenomena cause approximately 30% of the disasters that affect the country each year. The study area comprises a section of 52 km2 in the extreme geographical coordinates: 10,23 ° N and 10,18 ° S; -84.23 ° W and -84.14 ° E; which is located on the northeast slope of the Poás volcano in Costa Rica and has the physical characteristics of rainfall above 2000 mm per year, intense tectonic dynamics associated with different tectonic faults and dense tropical vegetation. The objective of this work is to show a morphometric model to determine susceptible areas to hillslope processes, starting from the case study of the most affected region by the landslides triggered during the Cinchona Earthquake in 2009. The morphometry or geomorphometry is the quantitative analysis of the terrestrial surface; among its fundamental variables are altimetry or hypsometry, slope of the terrain and drainage density. The morphometric methods used are based on the approaches of Simonov (1985), Lugo (1988) and Zamorano (1990). Seven morphometric maps were developed that indirectly explain the geomorphological dynamics of this territory. Firstly, the cartography of dissection density, depth of dissection, relief energy and total erosion were performed. The density of the dissection calculates the concentration of river channels in a specific area, aiming to establish zones of greater or lesser concentration of river courses and therefore with greater river erosion. The depth of the dissection aims to measure the erosive capacity or activity of rivers vertically, as it analyzes the areas where river erosion has been more (or less) intense over time and provides an indirect relationship of the parameters that allow the dissection to increase, such as lithology, terrain inclination, precipitation and substrate weakness planes. The relief energy determines the maximum difference of the relative height in meters in a specific area and represents the potential energy that emerges from the relief. The total erosion determines zones with greater or less erosion of the recorded relief by means of the density of the curves of level in a determined area (by minimum spatial unit of analysis). All these parameters were analyzed from the three morphological regions that make up the study area (Poás volcanic complex, pyroclastic ramps and valley slopes), and then integrate these variables into the slope susceptibility map. Subsequently, the results of the map of susceptibility to hillside processes were compared with the coseismic mass movements of 2009, which resulted in that 98% of these phenomena coincided with the areas of frequent occurrence and maximum occurrence. In addition, the rupture surfaces of the gravitational processes of 2009 were used to validate this model with a real seismic event, giving 78% of prediction. It is possible to affirm that the model showed a very good performance to predict coseismic slope movements despite the fact that the model does not use any seismic parameters. It would then be expected that their verification with slope movements induced by extreme weather events would be equally acceptable. In view of the obtained results, it can be affirmed that the greatest virtue of the morphometric model is the use of easily obtained morphometric parameters from two fundamental variables: the hydrographic network and the elevation contours. It is for these reasons that the method can be applied in the territories of poor countries, by virtue of the provision of this base information. However, the limitation of the model is on the scale of the data sources and the size of the analysis cells that compose the grid of the study area. Finally, this model could be replicated in other regions or countries as a basic input for decision making in disaster risk management and land use planning.

Resumen: En países tropicales donde existen condiciones geodinámicas activas, tanto internas como externas, y el modelado del relieve está en constante modificación, los procesos de ladera son una de las amenazas naturales más recurrentes que causan pérdidas humanas y económicas todos los años. El área de estudio comprende una sección de 52 km2 en las coordenadas geográficas extremas: 10,23° N y 10,18° S, -84,23° W y -84,14° E, la cual se localiza en la ladera noreste del volcán Poás en Costa Rica. El objetivo de este trabajo es mostrar un modelo morfométrico para determinar áreas susceptibles a procesos de ladera a partir del caso de estudio de la región más afectada por los deslizamientos disparados durante el terremoto de Cinchona en 2009. Se desarrollaron siete mapas morfométricos que explican de manera indirecta la dinámica geomorfológica de este territorio. Se compararon los resultados del mapa de susceptibilidad a procesos de ladera con los movimientos en masa cosísmicos de 2009, lo que dio como resultado que un 98% de estos fenómenos coincidieran con las áreas de ocurrencia frecuente y máxima ocurrencia. Además, se utilizaron las superficies de ruptura de los procesos gravitacionales de 2009 para validar este modelo con un evento sísmico real, lo que dio un 78% de predicción. Por último, este modelo podría ser replicado en otras regiones tropicales como insumo de base para la toma de decisiones en la gestión del riesgo a desastres y el ordenamiento territorial.

Resumen:Las colecciones de mapas y planos históricos que conserva el Archivo Nacional de Costa Rica son de invaluable valor cultural y debido a su fragilidad, deben ser preservados en formato digital para su manipulación. La iniciativa de crear una Cartoteca Histórica de Costa Rica, promueve no solo la protección de estos documentos, sino también su divulgación electrónica. Entre sus principales productos potenciales están los insumos para investigación científica, la consulta en general y la promoción de la geografía histórica.

Abstract:Collections of historical maps which preserve the National Archives of Costa Rica have an invaluable cultural value and due to its fragility, should be preserved in digital format for it manipulation. The initiative for create a Historic Map Library of Costa Rica, not only promotes the protection of these documents but also its electronic divulgation. Its main products are potential inputs for scientific research, consultation in general and the promotion of historical geography.

El terremoto de Cinchona, ocurrido el 8 de enero de 2009, provocó grandes impactos físicos, como la destrucción de infraestructura pública y privada, y sociales, al dejar un total de 2.326 personas damnificadas, 91 heridos, 7 desaparecidos y 25 muertos. Con base en fotografías aéreas y un levantamiento LiDAR de alta resolución, posterior al sismo, se clasificaron 1.900 procesos de ladera basadas en los trabajos de Alcántara-Ayala (2000), Cruden y Varnes (1996) y Highland y Bobrowsky (2008). La importancia de este trabajo para Costa Rica radica en que es la primera vez que se utiliza la clasificación internacional de procesos de ladera de la WP/WLI planteada en 1990.

The Cinchona earthquake of January 8, 2009, caused great physical impacts such as the destruction of the public and private infrastructure, including social, and left a total of 2,326 persons displaced, 91 injured, 7 missing, and 25 dead. Based on aerial photographs and the implementation of high resolution LiDAR, after the earthquake, 1,900 hillside processes were classified based on the Works of Alcántara- Ayala (2000), Cruden and Varnes (1996) and Highland y Bobrowsky (2008). The importance of this work for Costa Rica lies in the fact that it is the first time the international classification of hillside processes of the WP/WLI established in 1990 was used.

O terremoto de Cinchona, ocorrido no dia 8 de janeiro de 2009, provocou grandes impactos físicos, como a destruição de infraestrutura pública, privada e sociais, ao deixar um total de 2.326 pessoas danificadas, 91 feridos, 7 desaparecidos e 25 mortos. Com base em fotografias aéreas e um levantamento LiDAR de alta resolução, após o sismo, foram classificados 1.900 processos de escorregamentos baseados nos trabalhos de Alcántara-Ayala (2000), Cruden e Varnes (1996), e Highland e Bobrowsky (2008). A importância deste trabalho para a Costa Rica está em que é a primeira vez que se utiliza a classificação internacional de processos de escorregamento da WP/ WLI, proposta em 1990.

El volcán Poás presenta una serie de amenazas a la vida y a las actividades de las comunidades que habitan a su alrededor, tales como caída de cenizas, gases volcánicos, proyección balística, flujos piroclásticos, lahares y coladas de lava. En la investigación, motivo del presente artículo, se zonificaron e integraron los riesgos en mapas de peligros combinados, con el propósito de que se utilicen posteriormente en procesos de ordenamiento territorial. La metodología se basó en una aproximación heurística, apoyada en criterios cartográficos, geomorfológicos, geológicos y de afectaciones históricas, con el fin de lograr un producto adecuado a su escala y facilidad de interpretación. Estos mapas presentan mayor detalle e integración con respecto a otros trabajos y cartografías de peligros volcánicos existentes en Costa Rica.

The Poás volcano presents a series of hazards to the lives and activities of the communities in its surroundings; these hazards include ash fall, volcanic gases, ballistic projection, pyroclastic flows, lahars and lava flows. In the study described in this article, risks were zoned and integrated to form combined hazard maps for later use in territorial planning processes. With respect to methodology, the study was based on a heuristic approximation, which was supported with cartographic, geomorphological, and historical impact criteria to achieve a suitable product in terms of scale and ease of interpretation. These maps present greater detail and integration than other works and cartographies of volcanic hazards in Costa Rica.

O vulcão Poás apresenta uma série de ameaças à vida e às atividades das comunidades que habitam ao seu redor, tais como queda de cinzas, gases vulcânicos, projeção balística, nuvens piroclásticas, avalanches (lahares) e lamas vulcânicas. Na pesquisa, motivo do presente artigo, determinaram-se as zonas e integraram-se os riscos em mapas de perigos combinados, com o propósito de que se utilizem posteriormente em processos de ordenamento territorial. A metodologia foi baseada numa aproximação heurística, apoiada em critérios cartográficos, geomorfológicos, geológicos e de afetações histórica a fim de atingir um produto adequado à sua escala e facilidade de interpretação. Esses mapas apresentam maior detalhe e integração em comparação a outros trabalhos e cartografias de perigos vulcânicos existentes na Costa Rica.