Resumo: A diarréia neonatal em bezerros (DNB) é uma doença infecciosa grave em todo o mundo. No Uruguai, a taxa de mortalidade de bezerros associada a doenças infecciosas é alta. O colostro representa a principal fonte de anticorpos e está correlacionado com bons indicadores de saúde e sobrevivência durante a lactação. A vacinação contra a DNB melhora a composição de imunoglobulinas do colostro em vacas prenhes e o seu correto consumo garante a transmissão de anticorpos ao neonato. As vacinas contra DNB geralmente contêm bacterina ou fímbrias purificadas de E. coli, como a bacterina de E. coli CS31A+, bem como antígenos virais. A prevalência de clpG é uma das mais altas entre os genes de virulência de E. coli em fezes de bezerros no Uruguai. ClpG é a proteína estrutural da adesina CS31A. O objetivo do trabalho foi determinar o nível de anticorpos anti-ClpG no colostro de vacas Holandesas não vacinadas e vacinadas contra DNB no Uruguai. O estado funcional da glândula mamária foi analisado. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas na composição de proteína ou lactose. As diferenças em termos de gordura foram consideradas dentro da média do colostro. Para as análises de anticorpos, uma proteína ClpG recombinante foi purificada usando um sistema de expressão de E. coli. As análises de ELISA mostraram anticorpos anti-ClpG em ambos os grupos, refletindo a exposição natural das vacas às cepas de E. coli CS31A+. Com o modelo misto utilizado, não foi detectada homogeneidade de variância, mas foram encontradas diferenças significativas nas medianas dos valores de IgG entre vacas vacinadas e não vacinadas. Em vacas vacinadas, foi observada uma tendência de aumento de IgG anti-ClpG no colostro, o que poderia resultar em um melhor resultado para os bezerros se a transferência passiva ocorresse de forma efetiva.

Resumen: La diarrea neonatal de terneros (DNT) es una enfermedad infecciosa grave a nivel mundial. En Uruguay, la tasa de mortalidad de terneros asociada a enfermedades infecciosas es alta. El calostro constituye la principal fuente de anticuerpos y se correlaciona con buenas trazas de salud y supervivencia durante la lactancia. La vacunación contra la DNT mejora la composición de inmunoglobulinas del calostro en vacas preñadas y su correcto consumo asegura la transmisión de anticuerpos al neonato. Las vacunas contra la DNT frecuentemente contienen bacterina o fimbrias purificadas de E. coli, como bacterina de E. coli CS31A+, así como antígenos virales. La prevalencia de clpG es una de las más altas entre los genes de virulencia de E. coli en heces de terneros en Uruguay. ClpG es la proteína estructural de la adhesina CS31A. El objetivo del trabajo fue determinar el nivel de anticuerpos anti-ClpG en calostro de vacas holstein-friesian sin vacunar y vacunadas contra la DNT en Uruguay. Se analizó el estado funcional de la glándula mamaria. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en la composición de proteína o lactosa. Las diferencias en términos de la grasa se asumieron dentro del promedio para el calostro. Para los análisis de anticuerpos se purificó una proteína ClpG recombinante usando un sistema de expresión en E. coli. Los análisis de ELISA mostraron anticuerpos anti-ClpG en ambos grupos, lo que refleja la exposición natural de las vacas a cepas E. coli CS31A+. Con el modelo mixto utilizado no se detectó homogeneidad de varianza, pero sí diferencias significativas en las medianas de los valores de IgG entre vacas vacunadas y no vacunadas. En vacas vacunadas se observó una tendencia de aumento de IgG anti-ClpG en el calostro, lo que podría resultar en un mejor resultado para los terneros si la transferencia pasiva ocurre efectivamente.

Abstract: Neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD) is a severe infectious disease, distributed worldwide. In Uruguay, the calf mortality rate in dairy farms associated with infectious diseases is high. Colostrum intake constitutes the primary source of antibodies of neonates and correlates with good tracers of health and survival during the suckling stage. Vaccination against NCD improves the colostrum’s immunoglobulin composition in pregnant cows. Its correct consumption ensures the transmission of antibodies to the calf and should prevent or reduce the occurrence and outcome of diseases. Several vaccines against NCD are on the market, containing E. coli bacterin, purified E. coli fimbriae together with toxoids, and viral antigens. E. coli CS31A+ bacterin have been included in some vaccines against NCD. The prevalence of clpG is one of the highest among E. coli virulence genes in calves feces in Uruguay. ClpG is the structural protein of CS31A adhesin. This work aimed to determine the level of anti-ClpG antibodies in the colostrum of Holstein-Friesian cows without vaccination and vaccinated against NCD in Uruguay. The colostrum composition was analyzed to determine the functional state of the mammary gland. Non-significant differences were determined in the colostrum-protein or -lactose composition. The differences in terms of fat were assumed on the average for colostrum. A recombinant ClpG protein was purified using a prokaryotic expression system from E. coli. ELISA analyses showed anti-ClpG antibodies in both groups of bovines, reflecting the natural exposure of cows to E. coli CS31A+ strains. Mixed model analysis showed no variance homogeneity between groups but significant differences in medians of the IgG values between groups of cows. A tendency to increase the amount of IgG against ClpG in the colostrum of vaccinated cows was observed, which can result in a better outcome for the calves if the passive transfer of IgG effectively occurs.

Resumen: Durante las últimas décadas del siglo XIX, turbulencias políticas y limitaciones económicas catalizaron una fuerte corriente migratoria desde Italia a Uruguay, entre otros destinos. En el marco de esa corriente, las familias de Clemente Estable y Miguel Rubino se afincaron en el Uruguay. Ambas personalidades relevantes para la ciencia, la educación y la cultura de nuestro país se forjaron a lo largo de trayectorias que convergieron por momentos en intereses, trabajos, preocupaciones y cálida cercanía humana. En este artículo se procura ilustrar los caminos en muchos momentos afines de ambos sabios uruguayos, cuyas vidas y obras los han convertido en personalidades relevantes en la cultura nacional en su más amplia acepción.

Abstract: During the last decades of the 19th century, political turmoil and economic limitations catalyzed a strong migratory flow from Italy to Uruguay, among other destinations. As part of this trend, the families of Clemente Estable and Miguel Rubino settled in Uruguay. Both personalities, relevant to our country’s science, education, and culture, built trajectories that met at times in interests, jobs, concerns, and warm human closeness. This article aims to illustrate the paths at several times convergent of both Uruguayan scholars, whose lives and works have made them relevant personalities in the national culture in its broadest sense.

Resumo: Durante as últimas décadas do século XIX, turbulências políticas e limitações econômicas catalisaram um forte fluxo migratório da Itália para o Uruguai, entre outros destinos. No marco dessas correntes, as famílias Clemente Estable e Miguel Rubino estabeleceram-se no Uruguai. Ambas personalidades relevantes para a ciência, a educação e a cultura do nosso país, desenvolveram-se ao longo de diferentes caminhos, que muitas vezes convergiram em interesses, trabalhos, preocupações e uma cálida proximidade humana. Este artigo busca ilustrar as trajetórias de ambos sábios uruguaios, que em muitos momentos estiveram cruzadas, e cujas vidas e obras os tornaram personalidades relevantes para a cultura nacional em seu sentido mais amplo.

ABSTRACT Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) infections are responsible for acute illnesses and deaths in humans. Cattle and humans are exposed to STEC through faeces and contaminated food and water. The big six and O157 STEC serogroups are important food and water-borne human pathogens. Additionally, Stx1a, Stx2a and Stx2c subtypes are highly associated with the haemolytic uremic syndrome. This study aimed to determine Shiga toxin-subtypes, the presence of antigen 43 families, the genotypic and phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility profiles, O-serogrouping, phylotypes and phylogenetic relatedness of STEC of calf origin. Sixteen STEC isolates from calf origin were analysed. PCR was performed to determine Stx subtypes, serogroups, the presence of ag43 I and II and phylotypes. The antimicrobial profile was evaluated and the presence of PMQR and fosfomycin genes was determined by PCR. The clonal relatedness of STEC was studied by PFGE. The genotypes stx1a+c, stx1a+, stx1a+/stx2e+, stx1a+c/stx2e and stx2a were detected. Ag43 II was the most prevalent among subfamilies. STEC isolates were serotyped as O103 (n=5) and O111 (n=6). Fifty per cent of the isolates were classified as B1 phylogroup, 4/16 as E, 1/16 as C, and 1/16 as F. Non-O157 STEC isolates showed a high level of diversity, independent of the geographical and farm-origin. Isolates were resistant to ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, and fosfomycin-trometamol. The gene fosA7 was detected in 1 isolate. The virulence profiles, including Shiga toxin-subtypes and serogroups, denote the potential harm of non-O157 STEC isolates to humans. We also confirmed that circulating non-O157 STEC from cattle present genetic heterogeneity and are susceptible to antibiotics.

Resumen: La Queratoconjuntivitis Infecciosa Bovina (QIB) es una enfermedad ocular grave que afecta frecuentemente al ganado y que tiene un impacto económico significativo mundialmente. Los agentes etiológicos asociados a la QIB son principalmente Moraxella bovis y Moraxella bovoculi. El problema sanitario originado por la QIB ha llevado a procurar desarrollar vacunas efectivas para prevenir la enfermedad. La proteína de membrana externa CD (Omp-CD), ha exhibido potencial como antígeno protector en especies relacionadas como Moraxella catharralis. El objetivo de este estudio fue producir una proteína recombinante OmpCD de M. bovis y evaluar su inmunogenicidad en ratones CD-1. El gen ompCD se amplificó en todas las cepas de M. bovis y M. bovoculi estudiadas, y el alineamiento de secuencias reveló regiones altamente conservadas. La reactividad de OmpCD recombinante de M. bovis se observó cuando se utilizaron sueros y lágrimas de bovinos enfermos por Western blot. Se inmunizaron ratones CD-1 y se analizó la respuesta de anticuerpos en suero y líquido de lavado broncoalveolar (BAL). También se determinaron los niveles de citoquinas en el líquido del BAL. Los ensayos en ratones permitieron demostrar que la OmpCD administrada sistémicamente inducía un aumento significativo de anticuerpos específicos IgG en suero mientras que la inmunización intranasal inducía un aumento significativo de los niveles de IgA e IL-4 en el BAL. Además, la combinación de OmpCD y un adyuvante de mucosas aumentaron significativamente la respuesta de IgA en BAL. Estos resultados estimulan la realización de estudios adicionales para evaluar el papel de OmpCD como posible candidato a vacuna contra QIB, utilizando modelos de desafío en bovinos.

Abstract: Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) is a severe ocular disease that affects cattle and has a significant economic impact worldwide. The principal etiological agent of IBK is Moraxella bovis. Another species, Moraxella bovoculi, has also been reported as a possible etiological agent. Due to the health problems caused by IBK, it is necessary to develop effective vaccines to prevent the disease. Outer membrane protein-CD (OmpCD) has exhibited potential as a protective antigen in related species such as Moraxella catarrhalis. The objective of this study was to produce a recombinant M. bovis OmpCD and evaluate its immunogenicity in CD-1 mice. The ompCD gene was amplified in all of the M. bovis and M. bovoculi strains studied, and sequence alignment revealed highly conserved regions. The reactivity of M. bovis recombinant OmpCD was seen when sera and tears of diseased bovines were used in Western blots. CD-1 mice were immunized and the antibody response was analyzed in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Cytokine levels in the BAL fluid were also determined. The trials in mice allowed us to demonstrate that OmpCD administered systemically induced a significant increase in sera IgG specific antibodies while the intranasal immunization induced a significant increase in IgA and IL-4 levels in BAL. Moreover, the combination of OmpCD and a mucosal adjuvant significantly increased the IgA response in BAL. These results encourage further studies to assess the role of OmpCD as a possible vaccine candidate against IBK, using challenge models in cattle.

Abstract The aim of this article is to highlight the specificity of the Deleuzian reception of Henri Bergson's thought about the concept of image from its development in Gilles Deleuze's books on cinema: Cinema 1: The Movement Image (1983) and Cinema 2: The Time-Image (1985). This analysis has a singular relevance on the various levels of experience: aesthetic, ontological, political and pedagogical. The idea is to show how the theory of images, proposed by Bergson in Matter and Memory (1896), is reinterpreted by Deleuze assuming new philosophical positions, the scope of which exceeds that of the original proposal, while maintaining absolute argumentative coherence.

Resumen El objetivo de este artículo es destacar la especificidad de la recepción deleuziana del pensamiento de Henri Bergson a propósito del concepto de imagen a partir de su desarrollo en los libros sobre cine de Gilles Deleuze: La imagen movimiento: estudios sobre cine 1 (1983) y La imagen tiempo: estudios sobre cine 2 (1985). Este análisis tiene una relevancia singular sobre los diversos planos de la experiencia: estéticos, ontológicos, políticos y pedagógicos. Se trata de mostrar de qué manera la teoría de las imágenes, propuesta por Bergson en Materia y memoria (1896), es reinterpretada por Deleuze asumiendo nuevas posiciones filosóficas, cuyo alcance excede el de la propuesta original, manteniendo, con todo, la absoluta coherencia argumentativa.

Resumen: Nuestro país es referente a nivel mundial en algunos sectores de la acuicultura tales como la producción de caviar a partir de la cría de esturiones. Como en todas las producciones animales intensivas, en piscicultura se desarrollan epizootias debido a patógenos bacterianos en cuyo caso el empleo de antimicrobianos puede constituir una estrategia de control. La Septicemia por Aeromonas móviles (SAM) es la enfermedad infecciosa más prevalente en la piscicultura nacional. Las dificultades para el acceso en el país a formulaciones específicas para acuicultura y la carencia de información farmacológica para las especies y condiciones de cultivo nacionales, provocan en muchos casos un uso indebido de los fármacos con el consecuente riesgo de desarrollo de resistencia a los antimicrobianos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue caracterizar los perfiles de resistencia a los antimicrobianos desarrollados por un número representativo de aeromonadales aislados de peces cultivados en nuestro país. Para ello se empleó el método de difusión en placa según protocolo estandarizado por el Clinical and Laboratory Standar Institute. Los antimicrobianos evaluados fueron: amoxicilina ácido clavulánico, ampicilina, ampicilina dicloxacilina, enrofloxacina, eritromicina, nitrofurantoína, oxitetraciclina, penicilina, tiamfenicol y sulfametoxazole-trimetropim. Se halló un elevado porcentaje (82.3%) de aislamientos multirresitentes a los antimicrobianos. Todos los aislamientos analizados fueron susceptibles a la acción de los antimicrobianos enrofloxacina y nitrofurantoína.

Abstract: Uruguay is a world reference in some aquaculture sectors such as caviar production in sturgeons farms. Bacterial outbreaks are usual in fish farming as well as in all intensive animal production and the use of antimicrobials appears as a strategy for their control. Motile aeromonads septicemia is the most prevalent infectious disease in Uruguayan aquaculture. The difficulties for access to specific formulations for aquaculture in the country and the lack of pharmacological information for the species and national culture conditions, cause in many cases, improper use of the drugs with the consequent risk of developing resistance to antimicrobials. The aim of this work was to characterize the antimicrobial resistance profiles developed by a representative number of aeromonads isolated from fishes cultured in Uruguay. It was used the agar diffusion method according to the protocol standardized by the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute. The antimicrobials evaluated were: amoxicillin with clavulanic acid, ampicillin, ampicillin with dicloxacillin, enrofloxacin, erythromycin, nitrofurantoin, oxytetracycline, penicillin, thiamphenicol and sulfamethoxazole-trimetropim. We found a high percentage (82.3%) of antimicrobial multiresistant isolates. All the isolates analyzed were susceptible to the action of the antimicrobials enrofloxacin and nitrofurantoin.

Resumen En la actualidad, la salud humana y animal se sitúan en un escenario complejo asociado al cambio global que desafía los paradigmas a los que tradicionalmente habían estado enfrentadas ambas disciplinas. Problemas como el cambio climático, el aumento de la población mundial y la urbanización, la intensificación de la producción pecuaria y agrícola, la disrupción de los ecosistemas así como la globalización del comercio y el tránsito humano, entre otros, hacen necesaria la revisión de las estrategias tradicionales en Salud. Existen numerosos antecedentes históricos que documentan el afán de integrar diferentes dimensiones en el campo de la Salud, aunque fue a a partir de los primeros años de este siglo que el enfoque “Una Salud” se formalizó e institucionalizó como una estrategia sistémica para la promoción de la Salud Pública. Entre los desafíos a abordar desde la perspectiva de “Una Salud” se pueden mencionar la disponibilidad e inocuidad de agua y alimentos, la resistencia a antimicrobianos y la emergencia, reemergencia y propagación de zoonosis. Desde un punto de vista operativo se deberá considerar el desafío que representa para nuestras regiones, teóricas protagonistas de las políticas en el marco de “Una Salud”, la aplicación de instrumentos de acción global gestionados fundamentalmente por los gobiernos y las corporaciones de los países centrales.

Abstract Human and animal health face a complex scenario associated with global change that challenges the paradigms to which both fields have traditionally been confronted. Problems such as climate change, the increase in world population and urbanization, the intensification of livestock and agricultural production, the disruption of ecosystems and globalization of trade and human transit, among others, make necessary to review the strategies to promote public health. There are numerous historical precedents that document attempts to integrate different dimensions in the field of health, although it was just in the first years of this century that the "One Health" approach was formalized as a strategy for the promotion of public health. Availability and safety of water and food, resistance to antimicrobials and the emergence or re-emergence of zoonoses can be mentioned among the challenges to be addressed by the "One Health" framework. We must consider the challenge that represents for our regions, theoretical main receptors of the policies in the framework of "One Health", the application of global action instruments managed by governments and corporations in the developed countries.

Abstract In the Southern Hemisphere, ruminants are mostly raised in grazing systems where animals consume forage and are supplemented with low amounts of concentrates. Concentrates are usually given separately and are rapidly ingested. This practice leads to changing rumen environment conditions during the day, may alter the rumen microbial metabolism and could affect host performance. The native ruminal Prevotella bryantii strain 3C5 was administered every 48 h to wethers under experimental conditions simulating Southern-Hemisphere feeding to evaluate its potential as a rumen fermentation modulator. The inoculum potential was assessed on day 17. The ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N), volatile fatty acids and ruminal pH were monitored on a 24-h basis 19 days after the beginning of the experiment, and the microbial community structure was assessed by pyrosequencing. The administration of P. bryantii modified the fermentation products and daily pH values compared to the control. The NH3-N concentration in the rumen of treated animals was significantly higher than that of the untreated animals. Modification of the ruminal environment and fermentation pathways was achieved without altering the general structure of the microbial community or the potential methane production. P. bryantii 3C5 could be considered in potential probiotic formulations for ruminants in semi-intensive systems.

RESUMO: O objetivo deste artigo é indagar de que maneira a filosofia pode ser compreendida como um ato de resistência. Deleuze introduz essa tese, ao aproximar a filosofia da arte, porquanto ambas são atos de criação. Nesse sentido, o método filosófico de Bergson - a intuição - já indica um tipo de atividade filosófica que se caracteriza, antes de tudo, pela criação de conceitos. Ora, como é que um conceito filosófico pode constituir um ato de resistência? Para responder a essa questão, retomamos uma análise sobre a relação entre o método de intuição e a criação artística, seguida da interpretação deleuziana acerca do que significa ter uma ideia. Contudo, a passagem da ideia ao ato de resistência exige uma transposição do plano teórico para o plano concreto. Com esse intuito, focalizamos um exemplo sugerido pela filosofia de Bergson: a ideia de um possível retorno à vida simples. Isso nos permitirá avaliar até que ponto uma ideia filosófica pode ser confrontada com a realidade no mundo atual e, nesse sentido, entendida como um ato de resistência.

ABSTRACT: The aim of this article is to ask how philosophy can be understood as an act of resistance. Deleuze introduces this thesis approaching philosophy to art, because both of them are acts of creation. In this sense, the philosophical method of Bergson - intuition - already indicates a kind of philosophical activity which is characterized above all by the creation of concepts. So how could a philosophical concept be an act of resistance? To answer this question, we return to an analysis of the relationship between intuition method and artistic creation, forward by Deleuze’s interpretation of what it means to have an idea. However, the passage from idea to the act of resistance requires a transposition of the theoretical field to the concrete field. With this purpose, we focus on an example suggested by the philosophy of Bergson: the idea of a possible return to the simple life. This will allow us to evaluate the extent to which an idea can be confronted with the reality in today’s world and, accordingly, be understood as an act of resistance.

Resumen: La creciente resistencia a los antimicrobianos (RAM) es un problema apremiante que de no combatirse a tiempo puede comprometer la salud de las generaciones futuras, con un retorno a la era preantibiótica. Frente a esa amenaza, los organismos sanitarios internacionales convocaron a todos los países para coordinar renovadas estrategias de lucha contra la RAM, promoviendo el enfoque de “una salud” con la participación de diferentes actores e instituciones. Este manuscrito proporciona información actualizada, explicando que la RAM no es más un dilema médico sino un fenómeno complejo que además afecta la producción agroveterinaria, el desarrollo y la economía de los países. La exposición a antibióticos contribuye a la selección de mutantes resistentes y favorece la transferencia horizontal de elementos genéticos móviles como plásmidos, integrones y tranposones que portan varios genes de resistencia contra distintas familias de antibióticos. Las antibioticoterapias, aun en situaciones justificadas, ejercen presiones selectivas que favorecen el predominio de mutantes bacterianas resistentes, por lo que es preciso evitar las infecciones, optimizando la higiene y el empleo de vacunas. También se ensayan terapias alternativas, por ejemplo basadas en bacteriófagos o probióticos. El Plan de Acción Mundial para controlar la RAM propuesto por la Organización Mundial de la Salud, la Organización Mundial de Salud Animal y la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y el Desarrollo comprende cinco objetivos: mejorar la conciencia y el conocimiento sobre la resistencia antimicrobiana; reforzar la vigilancia y la investigación; reducir la incidencia de la infección; optimizar el uso de antimicrobianos, y asegurar una financiación duradera que asegure la persistencia de las acciones de control.

Resumo: A crescente resistência aos antimicrobianos (RAM) é um problema grave que, se não for combatido rapidamente, pode comprometer a saúde das próximas gerações, com um retorno à era pré-antibiótica. Considerando esta ameaça, os organismos sanitários internacionais convocaram todos os países para coordenar novas estratégias de luta contra a RAM, promovendo um enfoque de saúde, com a participação de diferentes atores e instituições. Este manuscrito proporciona informação atualizada, explicando que a RAM não é mais um dilema médico, mas um fenómeno complexo que afeta também a produção agro veterinária, o desenvolvimento e a economia dos países. A exposição a antibióticos contribui para a seleção de mutantes resistentes e favorece a transferência horizontal de elementos genéticos móviles como plasmídeos, integrons e tranposons que portam vários genes de resistência contra distintas famílias de antibióticos. As antibioticoterapias, mesmo em situações justificadas, exercem pressões seletivas que favorecem o predomínio de mutantes bacterianos resistentes, e, portanto é preciso evitar as infeções, otimizando a higiene e o uso de vacinas. Também foram feitos ensaios com terapias alternativas, por exemplo, baseadas em bacteriófagos ou probióticos. O Plano de Ação Mundial para controlar a RAM, proposto pela OMS, OIE e FAO compreende cinco objetivos: melhorar a consciência e o conhecimento sobre resistência antimicrobiana; reforçar a vigilância e a pesquisa; reduzir a incidência das infecções; otimizar o uso de antimicrobianos, e garantir um financiamento duradouro que assegure a persistência das ações de controle.

Abstract: The recent increase of antimicrobial resistance is a compelling problem that may compromise the health of future generations and result in us going back to the pre-antibiotic era, unless it is battled on time. In order to face this threat, global health organizations called countries to articulate new strategies to fight against antimicrobial resistance, by encouraging them to adopt a health centered approach that involves different actors and institutions. This report provides updated information, explaining the reasons why antimicrobial resistance is no longer a medical dilemma but rather a complex phenomenon that also affects agricultural and livestock production and the development and economy of countries. Antibiotic exposure contributes to the selection of resistant mutants and favors the horizontal transference of mobile genetic elements (MGE) such as plasmids, integrons and transposons, which carry several resistance genes against antibiotic families. Antibiotic therapy, still in justified situations, exerts selective pressure that favors the predominance of resistant bacteria mutants, and thus infections need to be avoided by optimizing hygiene conditions and relying on immunization. Also, alternative therapies are tried, as those based on bacteriophagists or probiotics. The Global Action Plan proposed by the WHO, the World Organization for Animal Health and the FAO to control antimicrobial resistance comprises five goals: to improve awareness and knowledge on antimicrobial resistance; to strengthen surveillance and research; to reduce the incidence of infection; to optimize the use of antimicrobial agents and to ensure a lasting funding that guarantees the continuation of control actions.

ABSTRACT. Records of in vitro susceptibility tests performed between 2008 and 2015 were retrospectively reviewed in order to evaluate the dynamic profiles of possible changes in antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from milk samples of cows with subclinical mastitis from 12 different Uruguayan Provinces. The results of 1,631 isolates tested by disk diffusion technique for susceptibility to penicillin and erythromycin were analysed. The possible tendency or changes in the behaviour of this pathogen against penicillin and erythromycin in the 8 year period was evaluated using the chi-square tests for trend and the homogeneity. The highest rate of resistance was observed for penicillin (36.9% in 2010), while erythromycin showed a resistance rate significantly lower (5.7% in 2015). The test for trend showed a significant trend towards decreased resistance to penicillin, whereas for erythromycin an increased resistance trend was observed. The determination of the scope of the problem is essential for the formulation and monitoring of effective response to anti-microbial resistance (AMR). Antibiotic assessment in Uruguay is now being reviewed with the objective of limiting antibiotics prescription to professionals trained to select a successful therapy, choosing the appropriated drug and treatment duration according each situation. To generate knowledge on the magnitude and tendency of the AMR problem using country-specific information must be a priority.

RESUMEN. Los registros de las pruebas de susceptibilidad in vitro realizadas entre 2008 y 2015 fueron revisados retrospectivamente con el fin de evaluar los perfiles dinámicos de posibles cambios en la resistencia antimicrobiana de Staphylococcus aureus aislados de muestras de leche de vacas con mastitis subclínica de 12 provincias uruguayas. Se analizaron los resultados de 1.631 aislamientos mediante la técnica de difusión en disco para la susceptibilidad a penicilina y eritromicina. La posible tendencia o cambios en el comportamiento de este patógeno frente a la penicilina y la eritromicina en el período de ocho años se evaluó utilizando las pruebas de chi-cuadrado para la tendencia y la homogeneidad. La mayor tasa de resistencia se observó para penicilina (36,9% en 2010), mientras que eritromicina mostró una tasa de resistencia significativamente menor (5,7% en 2015). El resultado de la prueba de tendencia fue significativo, indicando una disminución de la resistencia a la penicilina, mientras que para la eritromicina se observó una tendencia a aumentar la resistencia. Determinar el alcance del problema es esencial para la formulación y el seguimiento de la respuesta eficaz a la resistencia antimicrobiana (RAM). La evaluación de antibióticos en Uruuguay está siendo revisada con el objetivo de limitar la prescripción de antibióticos a los profesionales capacitados para seleccionar una terapia exitosa eligiendo la droga apropiada y la duración del tratamiento de acuerdo con cada situación. Generar conocimientos con información específica del país respecto de la magnitud y las tendencias del problema de RAM debe ser una prioridad.