Sepsis remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with increased burden in low- and middle-resource settings. The role of the inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of the syndrome has supported the modern concept of sepsis. Nevertheless, a definition of sepsis and the criteria for its recognition is a continuous process, which reflects the growing knowledge of its mechanisms and the success and failure of diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. Here we review the evolving concepts of sepsis, from the “systemic inflammatory response syndrome triggered by infection” (Sepsis-1) to “a severe, potentially fatal, organic dysfunction caused by an inadequate or dysregulated host response to infection” (Sepsis-3). We focused in the pathophysiology behind the concept and the criteria for recognition and diagnosis of sepsis. A major challenge in evaluating the host response in sepsis is to characterize what is protective and what is harmful, and we discuss that, at least in part, the apparent dysregulated host response may be an effort to adapt to a hostile environment. The new criteria for recognition and diagnosis of sepsis were derived from robust databases, restricted, however, to developed countries. Since then, the criteria have been supported in different clinical settings and in different economic and epidemiological contexts, but still raise discussion regarding their use for the identification versus the prognostication of the septic patient. Clinicians should not be restricted to definition criteria when evaluating patients with infection and should wisely use the broad array of information obtained by rigorous clinical observation.

Monocristais de ítria (Y2O3) são importantes materiais hospedeiros para lasers. Entretanto, seu elevado ponto de fusão (2450 ºC) dificulta o processo de crescimento de monocristais. Uma alternativa para a obtenção de ítria policristalina com propriedades similares às dos monocristais é a fabricação de cerâmicas transparentes. Desta forma, este trabalho teve o propósito de desenvolver uma metodologia para fabricar cerâmicas transparentes de ítria, utilizando-se um forno de indução eletromagnética que permite o uso controlado de atmosferas inertes ou redutoras e pode atingir temperaturas próximas a 2000 ºC, com taxas de aquecimento maiores que 100 ºC/min. Os pós-precursores foram preparados por meio de reação do estado sólido usando 3% em mol de ZrO2 como aditivo. As amostras foram conformadas em discos com 12 mm de diâmetro e 1 mm de espessura sob uma pressão uniaxial de 50 MPa e isostática de 350 MPa. Em seguida, foram sinterizadas a 1800 e 1900 ºC com tempos de sinterização de 1 e 5 h. Difração de raios X e microscopia eletrônica de varredura foram usadas na caracterização estrutural e microestrutural das amostras e sua transmissividade ótica foi medida por meio de espectrofotometria. Através da sinterização em forno de indução foi possível obter cerâmicas com até 60 % de transmissão em linha na região de 800 nm em tempos de sinterização menores que os descritos na literatura.

Yttria single crystals (Y2O3) are important host materials for lasers. However, it high melting point (2450 ºC) is an experimental barrier for bulk crystal growth. Our main focus here was to study the influence of the sintering temperature and soaking time on the optical quality of the yttria ceramics due to the possibility to manufacture large pieces. The sintering process was performed in a radio-frequency furnace under dynamic vacuum. The heating system was efficient to reach temperatures up to 2000 ºC with heating rate higher than 100 ºC/min. The ceramics were prepared by solid state reaction using ZrO2 as additive. The maximum temperatures used in all experiments were from 1800 to 1900 ºC and soaking time kept between 1 h and 5 h. The optical transmission was measured in the visible-near infrared wavelengths interval and compared to the single crystalline fiber of the same composition, grown by the Laser-Heated Pedestal Growth (LHPG) technique in our labs. X-ray diffraction showed only yttria as single crystalline phase. Thus, all zirconia (up 3 mol%) was incorporated in the ceramic. Yttria transparent ceramics were fabricated with relative optical transparency when compared to single crystal. At 800 nm yttria transparent ceramics showed 60% of in-line optical transmission, what permit to be used in other optical applications, but is not sufficient as laser host material yet. However, our results are similar or better when compared to the literature and our experiments can be performed at a higher heating rate.

Tolerance to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) occurs when animals or cells exposed to LPS become hyporesponsive to a subsequent challenge with LPS. This mechanism is believed to be involved in the down-regulation of cellular responses observed in septic patients. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate LPS-induced monocyte tolerance of healthy volunteers using whole blood. The detection of intracellular IL-6, bacterial phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) was determined by flow cytometry, using anti-IL-6-PE, heat-killed Staphylococcus aureus stained with propidium iodide and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate, respectively. Monocytes were gated in whole blood by combining FSC and SSC parameters and CD14-positive staining. The exposure to increasing LPS concentrations resulted in lower intracellular concentration of IL-6 in monocytes after challenge. A similar effect was observed with challenge with MALP-2 (a Toll-like receptor (TLR)2/6 agonist) and killed Pseudomonas aeruginosa and S. aureus, but not with flagellin (a TLR5 agonist). LPS conditioning with 15 ng/mL resulted in a 40% reduction of IL-6 in monocytes. In contrast, phagocytosis of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus and induced ROS generation were preserved or increased in tolerant cells. The phenomenon of tolerance involves a complex regulation in which the production of IL-6 was diminished, whereas the bacterial phagocytosis and production of ROS was preserved. Decreased production of proinflammatory cytokines and preserved or increased production of ROS may be an adaptation to control the deleterious effects of inflammation while preserving antimicrobial activity.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activates neutrophils and monocytes, inducing a wide array of biological activities. LPS rough (R) and smooth (S) forms signal through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), but differ in their requirement for CD14. Since the R-form LPS can interact with TLR4 independent of CD14 and the differential expression of CD14 on neutrophils and monocytes, we used the S-form LPS from Salmonella abortus equi and the R-form LPS from Salmonella minnesota mutants to evaluate LPS-induced activation of human neutrophils and monocytes in whole blood from healthy volunteers. Expression of cell surface receptors and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) generation were measured by flow cytometry in whole blood monocytes and neutrophils. The oxidative burst was quantified by measuring the oxidation of 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate and the NO production was quantified by measuring the oxidation of 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein diacetate. A small increase of TLR4 expression by monocytes was observed after 6 h of LPS stimulation. Monocyte CD14 modulation by LPS was biphasic, with an initial 30% increase followed by a 40% decrease in expression after 6 h of incubation. Expression of CD11b was rapidly up-regulated, doubling after 5 min on monocytes, while down-regulation of CXCR2 was observed on neutrophils, reaching a 50% reduction after 6 h. LPS induced low production of ROS and NO. This study shows a complex LPS-induced cell surface receptor modulation on human monocytes and neutrophils, with up- and down-regulation depending on the receptor. R- and S-form LPS activate human neutrophils similarly, despite the low CD14 expression, if the stimulation occurs in whole blood.

A presença de cimento de aluminato de cálcio e alumina hidratável pode afetar significativamente o comportamento de hidratação do óxido de magnésio (MgO) em suspensões aquosas. Entre outros efeitos, destaca-se a formação do composto conhecido como hidrotalcita (Mg6Al2(CO3)(OH)16·(4H2O)), que pode potencializar ou inibir os danos causados pela hidratação do MgO, dependendo da quantidade em que é gerado. Este trabalho investigou como a presença desses ligantes afeta a hidratação do MgO e suas conseqüências em formulações de concretos refratários usando testes de hidratação-desidratação, medidas de pH, expansão volumétrica aparente, resistência à tração por compressão diametral e porosidade. Por meio de comparações com composições de referência sem-ligante e sem-ligante-e-sem-MgO, foi verificado que os efeitos danosos da hidratação do MgO podem ser significativamente reduzidos por meio do ajuste do tipo e do teor de ligante aos concretos.

The presence of calcium aluminate cement and hydratable alumina can significantly modify the magnesia sinter hydration behavior in aqueous suspensions. As a consequence of these studies, the present paper investigates how these binders content could affect magnesia hydration in refractory castables using hydration-dehydration tests, pH, AVE, mechanical strength and porosity measurements. Besides this, because for these materials the aspects related to mechanical strength, porosity and refractoriness also must be taken into account, binder-free, magnesia-free and magnesia-and-binder-free samples were also tested as references. It was found out that the deleterious effects of magnesia hydration can be greatly minimized by the binder content.

Aluminas hidratáveis são compostos obtidos a partir da calcinação incompleta da gibsita Al(OH)3, que podem reagir com água e possuem ação ligante em suspensões cerâmicas. A substituição do cimento de aluminato de cálcio pelas aluminas hidratáveis em concretos refratários contendo óxido de magnésio (MgO) pode gerar diversos benefícios em relação às propriedades termomecânicas e refratariedade. No entanto, os efeitos da combinação desses materiais e suas conseqüências para a hidratação do MgO ainda não foram investigados sistemicamente. Neste trabalho, quatro fontes de MgO e aluminas hidratáveis foram combinadas em diferentes proporções e hidratados simultaneamente. Após investigações utilizando difração de raios X, termogravimetria e expansão volumétrica aparente, verificou-se que a relação MgO/Al2O3 e as diferenças de reatividade de cada matéria prima podem afetar significativamente o processo de hidratação. Além disso, foi observado que essa combinação pode ser utilizada como uma interessante técnica anti-hidratação para o MgO.

The substitution of calcium aluminate cement by hydratable aluminas in MgO-containing refractory castables can afford several benefits for these materials mechanical properties and refractoriness. Nevertheless, the way that hydratable aluminas affects MgO hydration and its consequences were not yet systemically explored. In the present work, four sources of magnesia and alumina were combined at different ratios and hydrated simultaneously. They were investigated by X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry and apparent volumetric expansion measurements. It was found that the magnesia/alumina ratio and the differences of reactivity of each raw material can greatly affect both hydration processes, generating different hydrated compounds. It was also verified that this combination can be suitably used as powerful MgO anti-hydration technique.

Cimento de aluminato de cálcio (CAC) e óxido de magnésio (MgO) são duas importantes matérias primas para a indústria de concretos refratários e apresentam grande tendência à hidratação. Os efeitos dessa reação em cada caso isolado são distintos e bem conhecidos: enquanto o CAC hidratado atua como ligante e garante a resistência mecânica do material antes da sinterização, a hidratação do MgO pode causar sua total desintegração em alguns casos. Devido ao interesse tecnológico nesses materiais, é importante investigar as peculiaridades desses processos e as potenciais interações entre eles. Neste trabalho, os efeitos da adição de diferentes teores de CAC na hidratação do MgO foram investigados em suspensões aquosas usando medidas de expansão volumétrica aparente, pH das suspensões e difração de raios X. Foi observado que os efeitos danosos da hidratação do MgO podem ser significativamente reduzidos com um controle adequado do teor de CAC nas formulações.

Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) and magnesium oxide (MgO) are two of the most important raw materials for refractory castables industry and both present a high driving force for hydration. The effects of this reaction for each compound are well known: whereas the hydrated CAC behaves as a binder, hardening the castable, MgO hydration can cause the total disintegration of the material. Due to the technological interests involved, it is important to study the peculiarities in these processes and their potential interactions. In the present work, the effects of the addition of different CAC contents on MgO hydration were investigated in aqueous suspensions by means of apparent volumetric expansion, pH measurements and qualitative X-ray diffraction. It was found out that the deleterious effects of MgO hydration can be significantly reduced with a proper control of the CAC content for the formulations.

A magnésia confere aos concretos excelentes propriedades refratárias aliadas a uma elevada resistência a escórias básicas. Entretanto, na presença de água, ela se hidrata em uma reação expansiva formando o hidróxido de magnésio. A expansão gerada, se não for controlada ou reduzida, danifica a estrutura do material podendo até levar à sua completa desintegração. Neste trabalho, aditivos conhecidos como quelantes foram adicionados à suspensão de sínter de magnésia, com e sem cimento de aluminato de cálcio, a fim de evitar a reação de hidratação da magnésia. Sob o ponto de vista químico, foram realizadas medidas de potencial zeta e grau de hidratação, correlacionando a mudança da carga superficial da magnésia gerada pela presença dos aditivos à quantidade de hidróxido formada. Sob o ponto de vista mecânico e físico, foram realizados o monitoramento da expansão volumétrica aparente e o registro de imagens das amostras. O melhor aditivo anti-hidratação para as amostras com aluminato de cálcio foi o ácido cítrico. A adição de apenas 0,3%-p foi capaz de quase anular a quantidade de hidróxido formada e adicionalmente zerar a expansão.

Magnesia addition to the refractory castables improves the refractoriness and basic slag corrosion resistance. However, in contact with water, magnesia hydrates by an expansive reaction resulting magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2. If this expansion is not controlled or reduced, it can lead to the rupture and under harsh conditions, to material dusting. In this study, additives known as chelants were added to the magnesia sinter suspensions, with or without calcium aluminate cement, with the objective to inhibit the hydration reaction. Considering the chemical aspects, zeta potential and hydration degree were measured and the changes on the surface charge of magnesia caused by the additives adsorption were correlated to the hydroxide amount generated. Concerning the physical and mechanical aspects, apparent volumetric expansion was recorded. The best additive anti-hydration for the samples containing cement was citric acid. Just 0.3wt% was enough to almost inhibit completely the Mg(OH)2 formation, and led to no expansion.

The immune consequences of in utero HIV exposure to uninfected children whose mothers were submitted to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) during gestation are not well defined. We evaluated 45 HIV-exposed uninfected (ENI) neonates and 45 healthy unexposed control (CT) neonates. All HIV-infected mothers received HAART during pregnancy, and the viral load at delivery was <50 copies/mL for 56.8%. Twenty-three ENI neonates were further evaluated after 12 months and compared to 23 unexposed healthy age-matched infants. Immunophenotyping was performed by flow cytometry in cord and peripheral blood. Cord blood lymphocyte numbers did not differ between groups. However, ENI neonates had a lower percentage of naive T cells than CT neonates (CD4+, 76.6 vs 83.1%, P < 0.001; CD8+, 70.9 vs 79.6%, P = 0.003) and higher percentages of central memory T cells than CT neonates (CD4+, 13.9 vs 8.7%, P < 0.001; CD8+, 8.6 vs 4.8%, P = 0.001). CD38 mean fluorescence intensity of T cells was higher in ENI neonates (CD4+, 62.2 vs 52.1, P = 0.007; CD8+, 47.7 vs 35.3, P < 0.001). At 12 months, ENI infants still had higher mean fluorescence intensity of CD38 on T cells (CD4+, 34.2 vs 23.3, P < 0.001; CD8+, 26.8 vs 19.4, P = 0.035). Despite effective maternal virologic control at delivery, HIV-exposed uninfected children were born with lower levels of naive T cells. Immune activation was present at birth and remained until at least 12 months of age, suggesting that in utero exposure to HIV causes subtle immune abnormalities.

We evaluated the recovery of cardiovascular function after transient cardiogenic shock. Cardiac tamponade was performed for 1 h and post-shock data were collected in 5 domestic large white female pigs (43 ± 5 kg) for 6 h. The control group (N = 5) was observed for 6 h after 1 h of resting. During 1 h of cardiac tamponade, experimental animals evolved a low perfusion status with a higher lactate level (8.0 ± 2.2 vs 1.9 ± 0.9 mEq/L), lower standard base excess (-7.3 ± 3.3 vs 2.0 ± 0.9 mEq/L), lower urinary output (0.9 ± 0.9 vs 3.0 ± 1.4 mL·kg-1·h-1), lower mixed venous saturation, higher ileum partial pressure of CO2-end tidal CO2 (EtCO2) gap and a lower cardiac index than the control group. Throughout the 6-h recovery phase after cardiac tamponade, tamponade animals developed significant tachycardia with preserved cardiac index, resulting in a lower left ventricular stroke work, suggesting possible myocardial dysfunction. Vascular dysfunction was present with persistent systemic hypotension as well as persistent pulmonary hypertension. In contrast, oliguria, hyperlactatemia and metabolic acidosis were corrected by the 6th hour. The inflammatory characteristics were an elevated core temperature and increased plasma levels of interleukin-6 in the tamponade group compared to the control group. We conclude that cardiovascular recovery after a transient and severe low flow systemic state was incomplete. Vascular dysfunction persisted up to 6 h after release of tamponade. These inflammatory characteristics may also indicate that inflammatory activation is a possible pathway involved in the pathogenesis of cardiogenic shock.

Concretos refratários são usualmente materiais de baixas porosidade e permeabilidade. Devido a isso, a retirada da água adicionada às formulações durante a mistura deve ser feita de modo cuidadoso para minimizar os riscos de explosão e danos mecânicos envolvidos. Por outro lado, a crescente utilização de concretos refratários em revestimentos de calcinadores para a indústria de alumínio e o período de lucro cessante durante essa etapa do processamento desses materiais indica que programas de aquecimento otimizados possam se tornar um importante diferencial competitivo para as empresas. Na tentativa de conciliar esses aspectos, aditivos para facilitar o processo de secagem e torná-lo mais seguro foram desenvolvidos. Entre os principais, destacam-se o pó de alumínio, as fibras poliméricas convencionais e as de alto desempenho. Neste trabalho, são apresentados seus mecanismos de atuação e comparações em relação às condições que otimizam seu desempenho.

Refractory castables are low porosity and permeability materials. Due to this, the first heat up must be carried out in a careful way in order to avoid the risks of explosive spalling and mechanical damages during the water withdrawn. On the other hand, the growing use of refractory castables in the aluminum industry, as calciners lining, and the lack of production during their placement indicate that optimized heating schedules may become an important competitive advantage to the companies. In order to join these two aspects, additives to easy the drying process and to make it safer were developed. These drying additives behave, generally, increasing the castable permeability in a more controlled way. The most important ones are the aluminum powder and the polymeric fibers. In the present work, their mechanisms and the most suitable processing condition for their use are presented.

Óxido de magnésio (MgO) rapidamente reage com água quando exposto a umidade ou durante a mistura de concretos refratários, gerando uma camada de hidróxido de magnésio, Mg(OH)2, na superfície das partículas. Durante a secagem desses materiais entre 350 ºC e 600 ºC essa camada se decompõe, gerando superfícies de MgO altamente reativas. O modo como esse processo afeta as propriedades de concretos refratários não foi descrito de modo satisfatório na literatura. Neste trabalho, suspensões aquosas de sínter de MgO termicamente tratado (110-900 ºC) foram preparadas. O efeito da temperatura de calcinação em sua reatividade foi avaliado por meio da técnica de medida de expansão volumétrica aparente. Com base nesses resultados, o comportamento de secagem de concretos refratários contendo MgO foi relacionado com medidas de resistência mecânica e porosidade. Também foram investigados os danos causados pela re-hidratação do MgO após a exposição dos concretos secos à umidade ambiente.

Magnesia (MgO) easily reacts with water when exposed to humidity or along the mixing of refractory castables, resulting a Mg(OH)2 coating layer on its particle surface. During castables dewatering above 350 ºC this coating begins to decompose, generating porosity and a highly reactive magnesia. Despite the abundant literature concerning magnesia hydration-dehydration mechanisms, few studies were related to refractory. In the present work, aqueous suspensions of thermally treated magnesia sinter were prepared and the influence of the calcination temperature on magnesia reactivity was estimated by the apparent volumetric expansion measurements. Based on these results, the drying behavior of magnesia sinter containing castables was related to mechanical strength and porosity measurements. The effects of re-hydration damages caused by humidity exposition after drying was also investigated.

Concretos refratários contendo óxido de magnésio (MgO) apresentam grande interesse tecnológico por unir a versatilidade e a liberdade de design dos refratários monolíticos aos benefícios conferidos pelo MgO, tais como, elevada refratariedade e resistência a escórias básicas. Entretanto, o MgO é facilmente hidratado formando Mg(OH)2 e essa reação leva a uma grande expansão volumétrica do material, o que limita sua aplicação em concretos refratários. Para encontrar soluções que minimizem esse efeito, torna-se necessário uma melhor compreensão a respeito dos fatores que afetam essa reação, como a temperatura. Neste trabalho, o impacto do deslocamento de equilíbrio químico conhecido como efeito do íon comum na hidratação do MgO foi avaliado na presença de diversos aditivos (MgCl2, MgSO4, CaCl2 e KOH). Entre os aditivos, o CaCl2 comportou-se como um retardador da reação, enquanto um comportamento oposto foi obtido para o KOH. O MgCl2 e o MgSO4 apresentaram ambos os efeitos dependendo de suas concentrações na suspensão. As possíveis causas para esses comportamentos são discutidas no artigo. Os resultados foram abordados considerando-se a termodinâmica e a cinética da reação, bem como os conseqüentes danos mecânicos causados ao material.

MgO based refratory castables present a wide technological interest because they add together the versatility and the installation efficiency of the monolithic refractories to the intrinsic MgO properties, such as high refractoriness and resistance to basic slag corrosion. Nevertheless, MgO is easily hydrated by water generating Mg(OH)2 and this reaction causes a volumetric expansion that could lead to material’s breakdown and inhibit its application in refractory castables. In order to develop solutions to minimize this effect, it is necessary a better understanding of the main variables involved in this reaction, such as temperature. In this work, the impact of the chemical equilibrium shifting, known as common-ion effect, on the MgO hydration was evaluated adding several additives (MgCl2, MgSO4, CaCl2 e KOH). Among them, the CaCl2 delayed the reaction, whereas KOH showed opposite behavior. MgCl2 and MgSO4 presented similar results and both effects (reaction delay and speed up), depending of their concentration in suspensions. The possible explanation for these behaviors are discussed in this paper. The results were evaluated considering the kinetics and the thermodynamics of the reaction, and the mechanical damages caused in the materials.

A adição de microssílica (SiO2) às formulações de concretos refratários contendo óxido de magnésio (MgO) é um conhecido modo de melhorar suas propriedades reológicas e trabalhabilidade. Na literatura, diversos estudos descrevem esse efeito como sendo causado pela formação de um silicato hidratado de magnésio na superfície das partículas de MgO, responsável pela diminuição de sua reatividade. No entanto, os potenciais benefícios em relação à redução dos danos causados pela hidratação do MgO em concretos refratários que esse mecanismo pode proporcionar não foram avaliados de forma sistêmica. Neste trabalho, o impacto da adição de microssílica na velocidade de hidratação de sínter de MgO em concretos refratários foi avaliado por meio de medidas de fluidez sob vibração, expansão volumétrica aparente, resistência mecânica e comportamento de secagem. Entre outros pontos, foi verificada uma significativa redução na velocidade de hidratação do MgO, bem como nos danos mecânicos causados à estrutura do concreto.

Magnesia hydration is an important concern when it is added to refractory castables. The volumetric expansion that follows this reaction can cause the material’s breakdown. Recent reports in literature suggest that if this reaction could be halted or slowed down, significant benefits in castables properties would be attained. In this work, microsilica addition was employed as a magnesia anti-hydration technique (MAHT). Using apparent volumetric expansion (AVE) and mechanical strength measurements, the drying behavior and X-ray diffraction, an anti-hydration mechanism based on the generation of protective magnesium silicate coating is proposed. Its limitations and effects upon castables processing were also evaluated.

Leptopspirosis is a syndrome with different clinical manifestations including the most severe and often fatal forms of pulmonary disease of unknown etiology. Pulmonary injury during the inflammatory process has been associated with the excessive number of alveolar macrophages (AMs) and polymorphonuclear leukocytes stimulated in the lungs and with the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates and other inflammatory mediators. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the cellular immune response of AMs or inflammatory cells of hamsters during leptospirosis. The activity of AMs was determined by measuring nitric oxide (NO) and protein production as well as inflammatory cell infiltration in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Pulmonary activity during infection was monitored by measuring pH, pressure of oxygen (PaO2), and pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) in blood samples. Cellular immune response and its role in the genesis of leptospirosis have been incriminated as the main causes of tissue and pulmonary injuries, which consequently lead to the pulmonary dysfunction in severe cases of leptospirosis. The present results show a low production of NO in both supernatant of alveolar macrophage culture and BAL. In the latter, protein production was high and constant, especially during acute infection. Total and differential cell count values were 2.5X10(6) on day 4; 7.3X10(6) on day 21; and 2.3X10(6) on day 28 after infection, with lymphocytes (84.04%) predominating over neutrophils (11.88%) and monocytes (4.07%). Arterial blood gas analysis showed pulmonary compromising along with the infectious process, as observed in parameter values (mean±SD) evidenced in the infected versus control group: PaO2 (60.47mmHg±8.7 vs. 90.09mmHg±9.18), PaCO2 (57.01mmHg±7.87 vs. 47.39mmHg±4.5) and pH (7.39±0.03 vs. 6.8±1.3). Results indicated that Leptospira infection in hamsters is a good experimental model to study leptospirosis. However, some of the immune parameters showed variations which might be associated with the animal species.