ABSTRACT Introduced alien carnivores are host to infectious diseases that may become an important threat for native carnivore species conservation. Canine distemper virus (CDV) is thought to be transmitted among individuals by direct contact and to present viral dynamics associated with a density-dependent multi-host carnivore community. In contrast, Canine Parvovirus (CPV) is mostly transmitted by indirect contact and does not depend only on the density, but also on the social behaviour of infected as well as susceptible hosts. The objective of this study was to assess how introduced American mink (Neovison vison) can act as a bridge-host between domestic dog (Canis familiaris) and Southern river otter (Lontra provocax) in different dog and mink population density scenarios. Our data show that otters are seropositive to both CDV and PV, as well as a molecular identity to Parvovirus in dogs and minks. Furthermore, a strong positive correlation between dog population density and observed seroprevalence of CDV in dogs, minks, and otters was recorded. For Parvovirus, the observed seroprevalence in mink and otters was not correlated to a higher dog population density, but instead a relationship between dog and mink population densities and social behaviour. Our results suggest that introduced American mink and domestic dogs are reservoirs of CDV and PV, both being diseases of major importance for the conservation of native endangered carnivores in Patagonia.

ABSTRACT: The Patagonian otter (Lontra provocax) is an endangered species endemic to southern Chile and Argentina. Most of its distribution range has recently been occupied by the American mink (Neovison vison). As part of a long-term study on the impact of mink in Patagonia, we assessed five reversible anaesthetic combination protocols in different doses on wild L. provocax and N. vison, and described the occurrence of any adverse effects. We assessed 16 anaesthetic procedures with a combination of ketamine-medetomidine (KET-MED; 6.0±2.8-0.05±0.01 mg/kg IM, respectively) or ketamine-dexmedetomidine (KET-DEX; 4.1±0.9-0.02±0.004 mg/kg IM) in L. provocax and 23 anaesthetic procedures with KET-MED (13.3±4-0.1±0.04 mg/kg IM), KET-DEX (4.8±0.3-0.024±0.001 mg/kg IM) in a low dose of ketamine (LDK) or KET-DEX (10.2±0.9-0.025±0.002 mg/kg IM) in a high dose of ketamine (HDK) in N. vison. Reversal was accomplished using atipamezole at 5 times the dose of MED or 10 times the dose of DEX. All anaesthetic combinations produced complete immobilisation and rapid anaesthetic induction, except for two otters anaesthetised with KET-MED which exhibited a longer time to initial effect. Hypothermia was commonly observed at the end of the anaesthetic procedures. Due to the hypoxemia presented in four otters at the beginning of anaesthesia, it is recommended to use additional oxygen when possible.

Introduction: Rabies is a lethal but preventable disease. Knowing the extent of immunization coverage among at risk populations, may help to guide immunization efforts, as well as increase the effectiveness of rabies control and prevention programs. Aim: To determine the proportion of wildlife veterinarians in Chile, as part of a group at risk of rabies transmission. Methods: An electronic survey was sent to wildlife veterinarians in Chile. Results: We found that veterinarians in Chile work mainly with carnivores and deer compared to other mammals (p < 0.001), rarely works with bats (p = 0.6572). Most of the participants had been bitten by domestic animals, while a lesser proportion (29%) by wild animals. Most of the participants never received rabies vaccination (53%), while within the group that had started a rabies vaccination scheme, a substantial proportion (39%) did not complete it. Discussion and conclusion: Identify the vaccination status of risk groups is important for infectious disease control and prevention programs, as this information helps to identify priority groups during outbreaks or vaccine scarcity. Wildlife veterinarians in Chile are at risk of rabies transmission and should be included in rabies prevention programs, especially considering their vulnerability and lack of biosafety practices. Increasing education in rabies epidemiology and prevention is urgently needed in veterinary faculties in Chile.

Introducción: La rabia es una enfermedad infecciosa mortal pero prevenible. Establecer si existe una adecuada inmunización pre-exposición contra la rabia en un grupo de riesgo, puede ayudar a enfocar los esfuerzos de inmunización para hacer efectivos los programas de control y prevención de la enfermedad. Objetivo: Determinar mediante una encuesta la proporción de veterinarios de fauna silvestre como grupo de riesgo que han recibido inmunización contra la rabia. Métodos: Se realizó una encuesta electrónica a veterinarios de fauna de vida silvestre de Chile. Resultados: Los veterinarios encuestados tienden a trabajar con carnívoros y ciervos en comparación con otros mamíferos (p < 0,001), rara vez con murciélagos (p = 0,6572). La mayoría de los encuestados había sido mordido por animales domésticos y una proporción menor (29%) por animales silvestres. La mayoría nunca había sido vacunado contra la rabia (53%), mientras que del grupo que sí había recibido vacunación anti-rábica, una importante proporción (39%) no completó el esquema de vacunación. Sorprendentemente, este grupo de profesionales rara vez trabaja con murciélagos (p = 0,6572), lo que puede reducir su exposición a linajes de rabia transmitida por murciélagos. Discusión y Conclusión: Identificar el estado de inmunización contra la rabia en grupos de riesgo es una información importante para evaluar los programas de prevención y control de enfermedades infecciosas y podría ayudar a identificar grupos prioritarios en situaciones de brote o escasez de vacuna. Los veterinarios de fauna de vida silvestre en Chile constituyen un grupo vulnerable: no mantienen prácticas de bioseguridad necesarias y tienen riesgo de adquirir la encefalitis rábica por lo que deberían ser considerados en los programas de prevención pre-exposición de la enfermedad. La educación sobre la epidemiología y prevención de la rabia es urgente en las facultades de medicina veterinaria en Chile.

In Latin America there is a lack of scientific reports of bat mortality caused by wind farms operation. We report for the first time, clear evidence of bat mortalities from wind farms in Chile. We generated an ecological niche model of the affected species, Tadarida brasiliensis, to explore areas of potential species distribution overlapping with areas with distribution of wind farms in Chile. We found that T. brasiliensis potential distribution overlaps with the current and future distribution of wind farms in Chile. Rapid developments are currently being made within the wind energy industry in Chile. Future research should quantify the impact patterns of wind farms on wildlife, explore mitigation methods, and determine the areas with high biodiversity vulnerability in Chile.

En América Latina hay una falta de reportes científicos sobre la mortalidad en murciélagos causada por la operación de granjas eólicas. Reportamos por primera vez evidencia clara de la mortalidad de murciélagos causada por granjas eólicas en Chile. Generamos un modelo de nicho ecológico para la especie afectada, Tadarida brasiliensis, con el fin de explorar la coincidencia entre las áreas de distribución potencial de la especie y la distribución de granjas eólicas en Chile. Encontramos que la distribución potencial de T. brasiliensis traslapa con la distribución actual y futura de granjas eólicas en Chile. En Chile existe un rápido desarrollo de la industria eólica. Futura investigación debe procurar cuantificar el impacto de las granjas eólicas sobre la vida silvestre, explorar métodos de mitigación y determinar las áreas con alta vulnerabilidad para la biodiversidad en Chile.

The situation of rabies in America is complex: rabies in dogs has decreased dramatically, but bats are increasingly recognized as natural reservoirs of other rabies variants. Here, bat species known to be rabies-positive with different antigenic variants, are summarized in relation to bat conservation status across Latin America. Rabies virus is widespread in Latin American bat species, 22.5%75 of bat species have been confirmed as rabies-positive. Most bat species found rabies positive are classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as “Least Concern”. According to diet type, insectivorous bats had the most species known as rabies reservoirs, while in proportion hematophagous bats were the most important. Research at coarse spatial scales must strive to understand rabies ecology; basic information on distribution and population dynamics of many Latin American and Caribbean bat species is needed; and detailed information on effects of landscape change in driving bat-borne rabies outbreaks remains unassessed. Finally, integrated approaches including public health, ecology, and conservation biology are needed to understand and prevent emergent diseases in bats.

La situación de rabia en América es compleja: la rabia en perros ha disminuido drásticamente pero los murciélagos están siendo reconocidos cada vez más como reservorios naturales de otras variantes de rabia. Aquí compilamos las especies de murciélagos reconocidas como positivas a rabia con diferentes variantes antigénicas, así como su relación con el estado de conservación de los murciélagos a lo largo de América Latina. El virus de rabia está ampliamente distribuido en las especies de murciélagos de América Latina, 22.5% (75) de las especies de murciélagos conocidas han sido confirmadas como especies positivas a rabia. La mayoría de las especies de murciélagos reportadas como positivas a rabia son clasificadas por la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza como “Preocupación Menor”. De acuerdo al tipo de dieta, los murciélagos insectívoros tuvieron la mayor cantidad de especies reconocidas como reservorio del virus rabia, mientras en proporción los hematófagos fueron los más importantes. Investigaciones a escala gruesa deben buscar entender aspectos de ecología de la rabia; es necesaria la información básica sobre la distribución y dinámica poblacional para muchas especies de murciélagos de América Latina y el Caribe; y el efecto del cambio del paisaje en la generación de brotes de rabia transmitida por murciélagos permanece sin ser evaluado. Por último, para entender y prevenir enfermedades emergentes a partir de los murciélagos es necesario un enfoque integral incluyendo salud pública, ecología y biología de la conservación.

BACKGROUND: Introduced species can have a major negative impact on biodiversity; an example is the American mink, which was introduced in the 1930s in Patagonia. While there is a consensus that reversing alien mustelids continental scale invasions remains unfeasible, there is little consensus, given a maximum cost or investment, on the feasibility and efficiency of region-wide control or eradication. Thus, our goal was to provide information about efficiency for mink control in Patagonia METHODS: Between January 2009 and February 2013 this study was conducted in ten study sites (4 km to 15 km long) between 39°S to 45°S latitude. Minks were trapped using cage traps operated by two trappers. We estimated the population density at each study site assuming they were close populations, exhibit intrasexual territoriality and the home range of females were smaller than those of males. We obtained a theoretical population and a modeled population from our trapping results. Sixty five minks were trapped over 2190 trap nights (0.03 mink/trap night). Mink captures were higher in the first six days and in the first trapping campaigns. A two person team was able to control a maximum distance of approximately 6 km of river shore by foot and 15 km of sea and lake shores by boat. There was an over linear increase of operational costs as time passed. Our modeled population was 91% of the theoretical population CONCLUSIONS: We believe that to trap and remove a minimum of 70% of the mink population in a region under ideal circumstances, traps should be deployed every 200 m and after the sixth day should be moved to another new transect. We suggest an annual repetition of this strategy as the more efficient for controlling mink populations in terms of trapping success and reduced costs. The number of traps will depend on the number of trappers participating and also on habitat characteristics.

The lesser grison (Galictis cuja) is one of the least-known mustelids in the Neotropics, despite its broad range across South America. This study aimed to explore current knowledge of the distribution of the species to identify gaps in knowledge and anticipate its full geographic distribution. Eighty-nine articles have mentioned G. cuja since 1969, but only 13 focused on the species. We generated a detailed model of the species' potential distribution that validated previous maps, but with improved detail, supporting previous southernmost records, and providing a means of identifying priority sites for conservation and management of the species.

El hurón menor (Galictis cuja) es uno de los mustélidos menos conocidos en el Neotrópico, a pesar de su amplia área de distribución a través de América del Sur. El objetivo de este estudio fue explorar la información actual de ocurrencias de la especie para identificar vacíos sobre su conocimiento y anticipar su distribución geográfica. Ochenta y nueve artículos han hecho referencia a G. cuja desde el año 1969, pero sólo 13 se enfocaron en la especie. Se generó un modelo detallado de la distribución potencial de la especie que validó mapas anteriores, pero con mayor detalle, apoyando previos registros australes, y proporcionando una herramienta para la identificación de sitios prioritarios para la conservación y manejo de la especie.

There is evidence that infectious diseases (IDs) can directly affect wildlife even causing catastrophic died-offs, which increase extinction risk. In this way, to achieve the biological conservation goal we should know the role of IDs on wild populations. The aim of this work was 1) to determine the contribution of IDs in Chilean wildlife declination, according to the IUCN Red List, 2) to evaluate the level of scientific evidence of this threat on wildlife from Chile, and 3) propose a risk level (for each threatened wildlife species) of become threatened by an ID with potential to leading population decline or extinction. In the country, 105 species are in some category of threat, of which 16.2% (N=17) have IDs as potential major threat. Despite this, no evidence is available into scientific literature about an ID producing population declines in Chile. We suggest that anuran species Telmatobius zapahuirensis and T. pefauri, and the canid Lycalopex fulvipes, need urgent efforts in epidemiological research; due in part by its restricted distribution and conservation status, which could increase risk of extinction driven by IDs. By the end, we suggest future directions to enhance the biological conservation in Chile.

En conservación biológica existe un incremento en los antecedentes de que las enfermedades infecciosas (EIs) pueden afectar especies silvestres causando mortalidades que pueden aumentar el riesgo de extinción. Es así que para conseguir metas en conservación animal hoy se estima necesario conocer el rol de los patógenos en las poblaciones silvestres. En concordancia con lo anterior, los objetivos de este trabajo fueron: 1) determinar la contribución de las EIs a la declinación de las especies amenazadas de la fauna silvestre presente en Chile, de acuerdo a lo señalado por la Lista Roja de la UICN, 2) evaluar la evidencia existente en la literatura científica del impacto de las EIs en estas especies, y 3) proponer el nivel de riesgo para cada especie animal amenazada de Chile de ser impactada por EIs que podrían provocar potenciales declinaciones poblacionales o extinción. En Chile, 105 especies animales se encuentran en alguna categoría de amenaza. En el 16,2 % (N=17) de estas especies se menciona, según la Lista Roja de la UICN, alguna EI como principal amenaza para su conservación. Pese a esto, no existe evidencia en la literatura científica indexada (ISI-wok) de alguna EI provocando declinaciones poblacionales en el país. Se sugiere que los anuros Telmatobius zapahuirensis y T. pefauri, y el cánido Lycalopex fulvipes requieren esfuerzos urgentes de investigación epidemiológica debido a su categoría de conservación y distribución restringida, lo que podría aumentar el riesgo de extinción mediado por EIs. Finalmente, se plantean direcciones futuras en el estudio de las EIs que contribuyan a alcanzar la meta de la conservación biológica en Chile.

BACKGROUND: Leptospirosis is an important zoonosis with worldwide distribution caused by pathogenic bacteria of the genus Leptospira. The North American mink (Neovison vison) has an important role in the environmental contamination with Leptospira, as minks live in aquatic environments and are the predators of rodents. FINDINGS: Blood and kidney samples were obtained from 57 minks in Southern Chile 39° S to 45° S. Pathogenic species of Leptospira were detected by PCR on 31/57 minks. To determine the species, we sequenced the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene on nine of the positive samples. We predicted two pathogenic species: Leptospira interrogans (five samples) and Leptospira borgpetersenii (four samples). CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that the American mink presents pathogenic species of Leptospira and confirm important environmental contamination of Patagonian rivers and lakes with pathogenic Leptospira.