Resumen: Antecedentes: El árbol de la caoba (Swietenia macrophylla King) es utilizado ampliamente en la medicina tradicional, especialmente sus semillas, que son usadas en Malasia, Indonesia y algunos países de Suramérica. Recientemente una fracción activa del extracto etanólico de las hojas (llamada “Sm13-16,23”), demostró resultados promisorios frente algunas toxinas de las víboras suramericanas. Objetivos: En este estudio se evaluó la toxicidad aguda oral de la fracción Sm13-16,23 del extracto etanólico de las hojas de S. macrophylla utilizando ratones Swiss Webster. Métodos: La fracción Sm13-16,23 se administró vía oral como dosis única a 2000 mg/kg y 300 mg/kg, se realizó seguimiento clínico de los animales durante 14 días y finalmente se les aplicó la eutanasia. Se practicó la necropsia de cada animal y se tomaron algunos órganos para su evaluación histopatológica. Resultados: No se registraron muertes durante el tiempo de estudio, ni se evidenciaron signos de toxicidad a dosis de 300mg/kg, sin embargo, a la dosis de 2000 mg/kg, se encontraron lesiones histopatológicas en el hígado; como cariomegalia y binucleación de los hepatocitos. Conclusión: La fracción Sm13-16,23 no produjo lesiones de toxicidad a dosis de 300mg/kg, lo que indicia que el riesgo de toxicidad aguda oral es bajo.

Abstract: Background: The mahogany tree (Swietenia macrophylla King) is widely used in traditional medicine, especially its seeds, which are used in Malaysia, Indonesia and some countries of South America. Recently an active fraction of the leaf ethanolic extract (labelled “Sm13-16, 23”), showed promising results against some toxins of South American pit vipers. Objectives: In this study the aim was to evaluate the acute oral toxicity of fraction Sm13-16, 23 from the leaf ethanolic extract, using Swiss Webster mice. Methods: Fraction Sm13-16, 23 was administered orally in a single dose to 2000 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg, clinical follow-up for 14 days was performed and then euthanasia, necropsy and histopathology of organs were performed. Results: Overall, there were not deaths recorded during the study period. Further not signs of toxicity in doses of 300mg/Kg were observed, but at doses of 2000 mg/kg, histopathological lesions in the liver, as karyomegaly and the binucleation were observed. Conclusions: Fraction Sm13-16, 23 does not produce toxicity lesion at doses of 300mg/kg, indicating that the acute oral toxicity risk is low.

Las hormigas cortadoras de hojas son consideradas una plaga mayor en el Neotrópico, debido a las pérdidas económicas considerables que causan al cortar grandes cantidades de material vegetal, para cultivar su hongo simbionte. Su control se da principalmente a través de productos sintéticos con consecuencias adversas para el ambiente y la salud humana. En busca de alternativas, los extractos etanólicos de las hojas de Capsicum baccatum y C. frutescens (Solanaceae), fueron evaluados contra la hormiga cortadora de hojas Atta cephalotes y su hongo simbionte Leucoagaricus gongylophorus. Los resultados fueron prometedores, ya que ambos extractos exhibieron una combinación de actividad insecticida y antifúngica cuando fueron evaluados a concentraciones de 0,10, 0,25 y 0,50 % de m/v. De tal manera, C. baccatum se destacó por su actividad insecticida, mientras que C. frutescens presentó una mayor actividad antifúngica a altas concentraciones. Como los metabolitos secundarios presentes en plantas son responsables por su bioactividad, se llevaron a cabo evaluaciones fitoquímicas preliminares y cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectroscopia de masas (CGEM) para ambas especies. En el análisis cualitativo de metabolitos los grupos mayoritarios detectados fueron alcaloides, terpenoides y fenoles, los cuales son los compuestos que más frecuentemente citan en el manejo de la hormiga cortadora de hojas. Algunos de estos núcleos fueron confirmados por CGEM, tales como el cariofileno y el alcaloide conhidrina en C. baccatum y precursores de capsaicina en C. frutescens. De esta manera, ambas especies son consideradas como una alternativa prometedora para un manejo integrado de la hormiga cortadora de hojas más eficiente.

Leaf cutter ants are considered to be a major pest in the Neotropics, due to the considerable economic losses they cause by cutting large amounts of plant material to cultivate their symbiotic fungus. Their control is mainly achieved through synthetic products with adverse consequences to the environment and human health. In search for alternatives, the ethanolic extracts of leaves of Capsicum baccatum and C. frutescens (Solanaceae), were evaluated against medium size leaf cutter ant Atta cephalotes, and its symbiotic fungus Leucoagaricus gongylophorus. The results were promising as both plant extracts exhibited a combination of insecticidal and antifungal activity when evaluated at concentrations of 0.10, 0.25, and 0.50 % w/v. Thus, C. baccatum was shown to be the most promising as an insecticidal while, C. frutescens presented a better antifungal activity at high concentrations. Since secondary metabolites present in plants are responsible for their bioactivity, preliminary phytochemical tests and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GCMS) of both species were carried out. In qualitative metabolite analysis, major groups detected were alkaloids, terpenoids and phenols, which are the compounds cited with the highest frequency in the management of the leaf cutter ant. Some nuclei were confirmed by GCMS, such as caryophyllene and the alkaloid conhidrine detected in C. baccatum, and precursors of capsaicin in C. frutescens. In this way, both species are considered promising leads for a more efficient integrated management of the leaf cutter ants.

RESUMEN Antecedentes: Los efectos farmacológicos producidos en el accidente ofídico implican la acción de varias enzimas, como las fosfolipasas A2 (PLA2), que exhiben una amplia variedad de efectos como edema y miotoxicidad. Algunos extractos de plantas han demostrado ser antagonistas de los venenos crudos y sus toxinas. En base a una bioactividad promisoria previa, Swietenia macrophylla King fue seleccionada para estudios posteriores. Objetivo: El propósito de este estudio fue identificar metabolitos inhibidores de PLA2 presentes en el extracto crudo de S. macrophylla que podrían ser prometedores en la neutralización de los efectos locales del accidente ofídico. Métodos: Un fraccionamiento biodirigido del extracto etanólico de hojas de S. macrophylla llevó a la detección de la (+)-catequina mediante cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectrometría de masas (GC-MS), y se confirmó mediante HPLC. La actividad inhibidora de PLA2 se determinó por el método de Dole y un ensayo espectrofotométrico con Ácido 4-Nitro-3-octanoiloxibenzoico (4N3OBA). La citotoxicidad se determinó en mioblastos C2C12 murinos. Resultados: La fracción F5 de S. macrophylla, mostró la mayor inhibición del veneno de Bothrops asper y PLA2s aisladas de B. atrox y Crotalus durissus cumanensis e inhibición completa de la citotoxicidad. La (+)-catequina fue el metabolito más abundante en F5, mostró una inhibición de PLA2 de 89,8%, 81,1% y 74,3%, a diferentes relaciones de veneno: catequina. Mediante estudios de docking molecular se demostró la unión de la (+)-catequina al sitio activo de la PLA2. Conclusión: Swietenia macrophylla exhibió una fuerte actividad inhibitoria sobre las enzimas PLA2s. La (+)-catequina, uno de los metabolitos presentes en la fracción activa F5, se propone como uno de los compuestos responsables de la bioactividad.

ABSTRACT Background: The pharmacological effects produced by snakebite accidents involve the actions of several enzymes, of which those of the phospholipases A2 (PLA2) exhibit a wide variety of effects such as edema and myotoxicity. Some plant extracts have been antagonists of crude snake venoms and toxins. Based on promising bioactivity, Swietenia macrophylla King was selected for further studies. Objective: The purpose of this study was to identify the PLA2 inhibitors present in the crude extract of S. macrophylla that could be promising leads in neutralizing the local effects of ophidian accidents. Methods: Bioassay-guided fractionation of the ethanolic extract of the leaves of S. macrophylla lead to the detection of (+)-catechin, characterized through gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and confirmed by HPLC. The PLA2 inhibitory activity was measured with the Dole method and a spectrophotometric assay with 4-Nitro-3-octanoyloxy-benzoic acid (4N3OBA). Cytotoxicity was done on C2C12 murine myoblast. Results: Fraction F5 and (+)-Catechin inhibited the PLA2 activity of B. asper venom, in a dosedependent way. In addition, (+)-Catechin showed an inhibition level of 83.1 ± 3.1 % of the enzymatic activity of one PLA2 purified from the venom of Crotalus durissus cumanensis using 4N3OBA as substrate. Also the ethanolic extract and fraction F5 showed inhibition of the cytotoxicity induced by the Bothrops atrox venom and their Lys 49 PLA2 (80 and 100% respectively). Molecular docking results suggested that OH from 4´ and 5' carbons of (+)-catechin could form hydrogen bonds with carboxylate moiety of residue Asp49, while OH from 5 could form a hydrogen bond with Asn 6. Additional Van der Waals interactions were also proposed. Conclusion: Swietenia macrophylla exhibited strong inhibitory activity against PLA2s enzymes. Catechin, one of the components in the active fraction F5, is proposed as being partially responsible for the bioactivity.

Activity-guided fractionation of an ethanol-soluble extract of the leaves of Swietenia macrophylla King, Meliaceae, led to several fractions. As a result, sample Sm13-16, 23 had the most promising activity against phospholipases A2 (PLA2), Asp49 and Lys49 types. This fraction inhibited PLA2 activity of the Asp49 PLA2, when aggregated substrate was used. On the other hand, this activity was weakly neutralized when monodispersed substrate was used. In addition, Sm13-16, 23 inhibited, in a dose dependent manner, the cytotoxicity, myotoxicity and edema induced by PLA2s, as well as the anticoagulant activity of Asp49 PLA2. Overall, this fraction exhibited a better inhibition of the toxic activities induced by the Lys49 PLA2than those caused by the Asp49 PLA2. The spectral data of Sm13-16, 23 suggested the presence of aromatic compounds (UV λ max (nm) 655, 266, and 219; IR λ max KBr (cm-1): ~ 3600-3000 (OH), 2923.07 and 1438.90 (C-H), 1656.69 (C = O), 1618.63 and 1607.67 (C-O), 1285.47772.60). We suggest that phenolic compounds could interact and inhibit the toxins by several mechanisms. Further analysis of the compounds present in the active fraction could be a relevant contribution in the treatment of accidents caused by snake envenomation.

Veneno de cobra continua a ser um problema importante de saúde em muitos países da América Latina. Apesar dos avanços na terapia antiveneno, os efeitos locais causados por fosfolipases A2 miotóxica (PLA2) presentes no veneno, ainda persistem. Em busca de alternativas para antagonizar a atividade da PLA2 do veneno de Bothrops asper, foram selecionados 36 extratos pertencentes a dezessete famílias de plantas vasculares e briófitas. Uma inibição significativa da atividade enzimática de PLA2 presente no veneno de B. asper foi observada em onze extratos. Além disso, a atividade antioxidante dos extratos foi avaliada. Os resultados evidenciaram uma correlação estatisticamente significativa entre os extratos com ação inibitória contra a PLA2 e aqueles com atividade antioxidante. Também, a quantidade de fenóis foi avaliada e foi encontrada uma relação entre a atividade biológica e a presença dessas substâncias. Nove extratos foram testados contra uma fração do veneno rico em PLA2 básica (Fx-V B. asper), resultando em um efeito inibitório na atividade desta fração da PLA2 na faixa de 30-80%. Esta atividade foi apoiada pela inibição que esses extratos apresentaram na citotoxicidade causada pelo Fx-V B. asper sobre mioblastos C2C12 de músculo esquelético de murino. Os resultados podem indicar a minimização dos esforços na busca de inibidores da PLA2, com foco nas amostras com propriedades antioxidantes conhecidas.

Snakebite continues to be a significant health problem in many countries of Latin America. Even though, there has been an improvement in the antivenom therapy, the local effects caused by myotoxic phospholipases A2 (PLA2) present in the venoms, still persist. In search for alternatives to antagonize the PLA2 activity of Bothrops asper's venom, 36 extracts belonging to seventeen families of vascular plants and bryophytes were screened. A significant inhibition of the enzymatic activity of PLA2 present in B. asper's whole venom was seen in eleven of these extracts. In addition, the antioxidant activity of all the extracts was evaluated. The results evidenced a significant statistical correlation between extracts with an inhibitory effect against PLA2 and those with an antioxidant activity. Moreover, the amount of phenols was quantified finding a relationship between the bioactivity and the presence of these compounds. Nine extracts were screened against a fraction of the venom rich in basic PLA2 (Fx-V B. asper), exhibiting an inhibitory effect on PLA2 activity of this fraction in a range from 30-80%. This activity was supported by the inhibition that these extracts presented on the cytotoxicity caused by Fx-V B. asper on murine skeletal muscle C2C12 myoblasts. The results obtained, could point to minimize efforts in the search of PLA2 inhibitors by focusing in samples with known antioxidant properties.