Abstract. Reef-forming cnidarians are essential for maintaining ecological balance. Unfortunately, coral reefs are endangered due to coral bleaching, which interrupts mutualistic symbiosis between Symbiodiniaceae algae and their coral hosts. Bleaching events result in very high coral mortality and the rapid deterioration of reef structures. Studies aimed at explaining the causes, mechanisms, and consequences of coral bleaching have been mainly conducted with anthozoans, while the impacts of thermal stress responsible for coral bleaching have been scarcely studied in hydrozoans, such as Millepora species (phylum Cnidaria, class Hydrozoa), which are the second most important reef-forming cnidarians. In the present study, the effects of thermal stress caused by the 2015-2016 El Niño on symbiont abundance, exoskeleton structure, and the biochemical composition of Millepora alcicornis were analyzed. Unbleached M. alcicornis specimens exhibited a higher abundance of Breviolum and Durisdinium species, which suggests that unbleached hydrocoral colonies might counteract thermal stress by hosting thermotolerant symbionts of the Durisdinium genus. Bleached hydrocorals exhibited lower levels of calcification than unbleached hydrocorals as well as changes in the microstructure of trabeculae and zooid pores. In contrast, thermal stress did not affect total calcium carbonate and carbohydrate content. Bleached tissues showed significantly higher levels of protein and refractory material, whereas their lipid content decreased considerably. The present study provides evidence that bleached M. alcicornis colonies suffered a decline in calcification and changes in the structure of their exoskeletons after being exposed to the 2015-2016 El Niño. The significant decrease in lipid content suggests that M. alcicornis primarily uses energy stores to maintain vital cellular processes at the expense of calcification.

Resumen. Los cnidarios formadores de arrecifes son esenciales en la ecología marina. Desafortunadamente, están amenazados por el fenómeno de blanqueamiento, el cual rompe la simbiosis mutualista entre algas de la familia Symbiodiniaceae y sus hospederos coralinos. El blanqueamiento causa un alto índice de mortalidad de corales y un rápido deterioro de las estructuras arrecifales. Los estudios dirigidos a explicar causas, mecanismos y consecuencias del blanqueamiento se han realizado principalmente con antozoos, mientras que los impactos del blanqueamiento de corales se han estudiado escasamente en especies de Millepora (phylum Cnidaria, clase Hydrozoa), que son los segundos constructores de arrecifes más importantes. En el presente estudio se analizó el efecto del estrés térmico causado por el evento El Niño 2015-2016 sobre la abundancia de simbiontes, la estructura del exoesqueleto y la composición bioquímica de Millepora alcicornis. Los especímenes sin blanquear de M. alcicornis contenían una mayor abundancia de especies de Breviolum y Durisdinium, lo que sugiere que las colonias de hidrocorales sin blanquear podrían estar contrarrestando el estrés térmico al albergar simbiontes termotolerantes del género Durisdinium. Los hidrocorales blanqueados mostraron niveles más bajos de calcificación y cambios en la microestructura de zooides y trabéculas. En contraste, el estrés térmico no modificó el contenido total de carbonato de calcio y carbohidratos en los hidrocorales. Los tejidos blanqueados mostraron niveles significativamente más altos de proteína y material refractario, mientras que su contenido de lípidos disminuyó considerablemente. El presente estudio muestra que las colonias blanqueadas de M. alcicornis sufrieron una disminución en la calcificación y cambios en la estructura de su exoesqueleto después de estar expuestas al estrés térmico provocado por el evento El Niño 2015-2016. La disminución significativa en el contenido de lípidos sugiere que M. alcicornis está utilizando sus reservas de energía principalmente para mantener sus procesos celulares vitales a expensas de la calcificación.

AbstractBackground Millepora alcicornis is a branching hydrocoral common throughout the Caribbean Sea. Like other members of this genus, this species is capable of inducing skin eruptions and blisters with severe pain after contact. In the present study, we investigated the toxicity of theM. alcicornis aqueous extract on several animal models. Considering that some cnidarian hemolysins have been associated to local tissue damage, since they also induce lysis of other cell types, we also made a partial characterization of the hemolytic activity of M. alcicornis aqueous extract. This information is important for understanding the defense mechanisms of the “fire corals”.Methods The effects of pH, temperature, and some divalent cations on the hemolytic activity of the extract were assayed, followed by a zymogram analysis to detect the cytolysins and determine their approximate molecular weight. The toxicity of the aqueous extract was assayed in mice, by intravenous administration, and histopathological changes on several tissues were analyzed by light microscopy. The toxicity of the extract was also tested inArtemia salina nauplii, and the damages caused on the crustaceans were analyzed by transmission and scanning electron microscopy.Results The hemolytic activity of the hydrocoral extract was enhanced in the presence of Ca 2+ (≥2 mM), Mg 2+ (≥6 mM), and Ba2+ (≥0.1 mM); however, it was reduced in the presence of Cu2+(≥0.1 mM), Zn 2+ (≥6 mM), and EDTA (≥0.34 mM). Differences in the pH did not affect the hemolytic activity, but it was temperature-sensitive, since preincubation at ≥ 50 °C sharply reduced hemolysis. The zymogram showed the presence of two types of hemolysins: ~ 28–30 kDa proteins with phospholipase A 2 activity and ~ 200 kDa proteins that do not elicit enzymatic activity. The aqueous extract of this cnidarian was lethal to mice (LD 50 = 17 μg protein/g), and induced kidney, liver, and lung damages. Under denaturing conditions, the aqueous extract completely lost its toxic and hemolytic activities.Conclusions The results showed that the M. alcicornis aqueous extract contains two types of thermolabile hemolysins: proteins of approximately 28–30 kDa with PLA 2 activity, while the others are larger proteins of approximately 200 kDa, which do not possess PLA 2activity. Those thermolabile cytolysins, which are stable to pH changes and whose activity is calcium dependent, are capable of inducing damage in lung, kidney and liver tissues, resulting in a slow death of mice. M. alcicorniscytolysins also provoke tissue dissociation inArtemia salina nauplii that might be attributed to pore forming mechanisms.

Os conhecimentos sobre a dinâmica da matéria orgânica e disponibilidade de nutrientes em solos salinos podem ser úteis para nortear a adoção de estratégias de recuperação e manejo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito da condutividade elétrica (EC) e presença de N inorgânico na decomposição da matéria orgânica a dois solos salinos localizados em Guanajuato (México). Nesse sentido, glicose marcada com 14C com ou sem amônio na dose de 200 mg kg-1 de N foi adicionada em dois tipos de solo com valores de condutividade elétrica de 0,94 dS m-1 (baixo EC; LEC) e 6,72 dS m-1 (alta EC; HEC). Amostras de solos foram incubadas durante 21 dias e, ao longo desse tempo, foram avaliadas as concentrações de N inorgânico e a produção de 12CO2 e 14CO2. Após o período de incubação, aproximadamente 60 % da glicose marcada com 14C adicionado ao solo LEC evoluiu como 14CO2, mas somente 20 % no solo HEC a evolução de 14CO2 foi de apenas 20 %. Decorrido um dia de incubação, menos de 200 mg de 14C foram extraídos do solo LEC, ao passo que no solo HEC foram extraídos mais de 500 mg de 14C. Não ocorreu mineralização de N nos dois solos e a adição de glicose reduziu as concentrações de N inorgânico no solo controle e no solo que recebeu N-NH4+. As concentrações de NO2- e NO3- foram, em média, maiores no solo LEC do que no solo HEC, com exceção do teor de NO2-, que foi maior no HEC tratado com NH4+. O aumento da condutividade elétrica promoveu a redução da mineralização de substrato facilmente decomponível e a diminuição do teor de N no solo.

Organic matter dynamics and nutrient availability in saline agricultural soils of the State of Guanajuato might provide information for remediation strategies. 14C labeled glucose with or without 200 mg kg-1 of NH4+-N soil was added to two clayey agricultural soils with different electrolytic conductivity (EC), i.e. 0.94 dS m-1 (low EC; LEC) and 6.72 dS m-1 (high EC; HEC), to investigate the effect of N availability and salt content on organic material decomposition. Inorganic N dynamics and production of CO2 and 14CO2 were monitored. Approximately 60 % of the glucose-14C added to LEC soil evolved as 14CO2, but only 20 % in HEC soil after the incubation period of 21 days. After one day, < 200 mg 14C was extractable from LEC soil, but > 500 mg 14C from HEC soil. No N mineralization occurred in the LEC and HEC soils and glucose addition reduced the concentrations of inorganic N in unamended soil and soil amended with NH4+-N. The NO2- and NO3- concentrations were on average higher in LEC than in HEC soil, with exception of NO2- in HEC amended with NH4+-N. It was concluded that increases in soil EC reduced mineralization of the easily decomposable C substrate and resulted in N-depleted soil.