High levels of hatching failure in artificially incubated ostrich eggs cause considerable loss of income for the industry. In the 2015 - 2016 breeding seasons, between 846 and 1 549 egg records were used to determine the effect of various setting positions during artificial incubation. Fresh eggs were placed in trolleys in the setter that were turned automatically hourly through 60 degrees or 90 degrees. The additional treatments as factorial design included eggs set horizontally for five weeks in the setter; in horizontal position for three weeks and vertically for two weeks; and vertically for five weeks. These treatments were repeated over two production years to represent the seasons, namely winter (June to August), spring (September to November), and summer (December). Late embryonic mortalities improved significantly in eggs that were set to turn through 90 degrees (0.16 ± 0.02) compared with those set to turn through 60 degrees (0.28 ± 0.02), regardless of season and setting position. The preferred way of setting ostrich eggs would therefore be vertically in a trolley that turns hourly through 90 degrees with the air cell upwards to utilize incubator space optimally.

High levels of hatching failure in artificially incubated ostrich eggs cause considerable loss in income for the industry. During the 2015 - 2016 breeding seasons, between 846 and 1 549 egg records were used to determine the effect of various setting positions during artificial incubation. Fresh eggs were placed in trolleys to be turned automatically through a 60-degree or a 90-degree angle hourly in the setter. Additional treatments in a factorial design consisted of eggs set in the horizontal position for the total period of five weeks in the setter; eggs set horizontally for three weeks and vertically for two weeks; and eggs set vertically for five weeks in the setter. These treatments were repeated over two production years to represent various seasons, namely winter (June to August), spring (September to November) and summer (December). Late embryonic mortalities were improved significantly in eggs set in trolleys to turn through an angle of 90 degrees (0.16 ± 0.02) compared with eggs set in trolleys to turn through 60 degrees (0.28 ± 0.02), regardless of season and setting position. The preferred way of setting ostrich eggs would thus be in the vertical position in a trolley that turns hourly through an angle of 90 degrees with the air cell upwards to utilize incubator space optimally.

The patterns of embryonic development in ostriches, especially in the last stage of hatching, are still not well understood. This study examined between 3468 and 3484 dead-in-shell (DIS) eggs with chicks that died between day 35 and day 42 of artificial incubation. Most DIS chicks were positioned correctly with their heads towards the air cell (52.6%). DIS chicks that positioned their heads near the equator of the egg amounted to 46.5%, while a small percentage (0.9%) were positioned with their upper body towards the bottom of the egg. More DIS chicks tended to pip internally near the equator of the egg (37.6%) than DIS chicks that pipped internally through the membranes into the air cell (34.4%). Most DIS chicks had their heads turned in the correct position from left to right (54.4%), though their beaks were mostly positioned towards the air cell (52.9%). The highest percentage of DIS chicks had their feet in the upwards position (52.4%), while 46% had their feet across or below the head. The wings of all DIS chicks were positioned next to the body. Results from the study showed that most of the DIS chicks were roughly in the correct position, but were still unable to hatch. This warrants future research to investigate the reasons that prevent correctly positioned chicks from hatching.

A total of 2160 images of candled, incubated ostrich eggs were digitized to determine the percentage of egg volume occupied by the air cell at different stages of incubation. The air cell on average occupied 2.5% of the volume of fresh eggs. For eggs that hatched successfully, this volume increased to an average of 24.4% at 41 days of incubation, just prior to hatching. Air cell volume at 29 days of incubation for infertile eggs (19.3%) was significantly higher when compared to dead-in-shell (DIS) eggs (14.3%) and eggs that hatched (13.8%). There was a significantly larger air cell volume in eggs that hatched normally compared with DIS eggs at 41 days of incubation (28.3% vs. 21.7%, respectively). No differences in air cell volume were observed up to day 17 of incubation for eggs that hatched normally between eggs that exhibited high, average or low rates of water loss, but from 20 days of incubation the air cell volume was significantly larger for high weight loss eggs. However, for the DIS eggs, air cell volume was consistently larger in eggs that exhibited high rates of water loss. Air cell volume was largely independent of adult strain (SA Black or Zimbabwean Blue) or whether chicks were assisted to hatch. Although some subtle differences in air cell size were detected between hatched and DIS chicks during this study, it is unlikely to find useful application in the broader industry.

Despite numerous studies, the effect of artificial incubation on the hatchability and survival of near-term ostrich chicks is still not well understood. Records from 13 975 eggs with embryos of 35 days and older, artificially incubated between 2006 and 2008, were analysed to determine the potential effect of pipping position upon the hatchability, and the subsequent survival of ostrich chicks. A total of 864 near-term chicks (6.9%) failed to pip. Chicks that pipped in the correct position had a higher probability of surviving hatching than those pipping in the incorrect position. Genotype did not affect the proportion of chicks pipping in the correct position, or the survival of hatching ostrich chicks pipping in either the correct or incorrect positions. Although female age had a significant effect on the proportion of chicks pipping, the survival of hatchlings was independent of female age. Chicks hatching during winter were more likely to pip than chicks hatching in spring, whereas chicks hatching in summer were more likely to pip in the correct position. In winter the proportion of chicks pipping in incorrect positions were significantly higher than in either summer or autumn. The survival rate of chicks hatching during winter was generally higher than those hatching in the other seasons. The transfer of eggs between setters during incubation, had a negative influence on the ability of ostrich chicks pipping in the correct position. Incubated ostrich eggs with intermediate levels of water loss, i.e. between 9.0 and 18.9% of fresh-egg weight, were more likely to pip in the correct position overall than those with higher or lower levels of water loss. Chicks from eggs stored for intermediate periods, i.e. 3, 4 and 6 days prior to being set, were more likely to pip than chicks from those eggs set directly after collection without storage. Storage time also affected pipping position, with chicks from eggs stored for five days being more likely to pip in the correct position than chicks from those eggs set directly after collection. These results emphasize the need for ostrich incubation facilities to avoid the transfer of eggs between setters during artificial incubation, strive to achieve an optimal level of water loss, and apply a protocol of not setting eggs immediately after collection to maximize the hatchability of chicks pipping in the correct position and post-hatching survival.

Women living in Latin American countries bear a disproportionate burden of cervical cancer, a condition caused by infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). We performed a study in Santa Elena, Guayas (currently Santa Elena Province), Ecuador, to determine how often HPV could be detected in women attending a private cancer screening clinic. Participants underwent a Pap test, and vaginal and cervical swabs were performed for HPV testing by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Each participant completed a verbally administered survey. The mean age of 302 participants was 37.7 years (range 18 to 78 years). The majority of cervical and vaginal specimens contained sufficient DNA to perform PCR. Overall, 24.2% of the participants had either a cervical or vaginal swab that tested positive for HPV. In general, there was a good correlation between the HPV types detected in the cervical and vaginal swabs from the participants, but vaginal swabs were more likely to contain HPV DNA than were cervical swabs. The high-risk HPV types 16, 52, 58, and 59 and the low-risk HPV types 62, 71, 72, and 83 were the most frequently detected HPV types. The number of lifetime sexual partners was positively associated with detection of any HPV type, detection of oncogenic HPV, and abnormal Pap smears. Further studies are needed to determine if these results are representative of all Ecuadorian women and to determine if cervical cancers in Ecuadorian women are caused by the same HPV types found in the swab specimens obtained in this study.

Data obtained from a pair-mated ostrich flock located at Oudtshoorn, South Africa, were used to estimate genetic parameters for egg weight (EWT), weight of day-old chicks (CWT), water loss to 21 (WL21) and 35 (WL35) days of incubation, and pipping time (PT) for between 13 806 and 19 913 artificially incubated ostrich eggs during the 2003 - 2006 production years. Data were initially analysed as single traits using ASREML. Covariance components and ratios were subsequently derived from two-trait analyses. Single-trait estimates of heritability (h²) were 0.46 ± 0.08 for EWT, 0.34 ± 0.07 for CWT, 0.34 ± 0.07 for WL21, 0.27 ± 0.06 for WL35 and 0.16 ± 0.04 for pipping time. Estimates of maternal genetic effects (m²) were 0.23 ± 0.12 for EWT and 0.29 ± 0.10 for CWT. A maternal permanent environmental effect amounted to 0.25 ± 0.10 for EWT, 0.12 ± 0.09 for CWT, 0.25 ± 0.04 for WL21 and 0.30 ± 0.04 for WL35. Genetic correlations with EWT amounted to -0.21 ± 0.13 for WL21 and to -0.12 ± 0.14 for WL35. Corresponding correlations with CWT were -0.43 ± 0.07 and -0.54 ± 0.11. Parameters indicate that it should be possible to alter evaporative water loss of ostrich eggs by genetic selection. A feasible selection strategy, however, needs to be devised as it is challenging to effect genetic change in a trait with an intermediate optimum.

Data obtained from a pair-mated ostrich flock maintained at Oudtshoorn, South Africa, were used to estimate environmental and genetic parameters for egg weight (EWT), water loss of incubated eggs up to 21 days (WL21), water loss up to 35 days (WL35), pipping time (PT) and weight of day-old chicks (CWT). Between 13806 and 19913 artificially incubated ostrich eggs during the 2003 to 2006 production years were used. Systematic factors affecting these traits such as production year, breeding season, female age, incubator type, storage time and ostrich breed, were initially assessed in single-trait-analyses, using ASREML. Eggs and chicks produced by Zimbabwean Blue (ZB) females were 5 and 7% heavier, respectively, than those produced by South African Black (SAB) females. WL21 and WL35 were not significantly different between ZB and SAB birds. There were trends for within-season effects on EWT and CWT, but no general, robust trend applicable to all years could be discerned. Season had a significant effect on WL21, WL35 and PT. An increase was apparent in EWT, CWT and PT with an increase in female age. There was a linear increase in pipping time as egg storage time prior to incubation increased. Incubator type had an effect on WL21 and WL35. Systematic factors affect traits such as WL21, WL35 and PT and should be accounted for before the estimation of genetic parameters. These factors should be considered when planning commercial ostrich husbandry and artificial incubation operations.

Damage to ostrich skins in the form of cuts and scratches obtained during the grow-out phase results in lower quality skins that fetch lower prices. This represents major financial losses to the ostrich industry. The stage at which such damage occurs and its persistence to slaughter age, when it affects skin grading, is not known. In this study we assessed the persistence through to slaughter age of wounds inflicted on the skins of ostrich chicks at ages 1, 4, 7, 10 and 13 months. Superficial and deep wounds were investigated by either scratching the skin with a nail, or by cutting through the skin with a scalpel blade. Experimental animals were slaughtered at either 11 or 14 months of age and visible scars were assessed on the processed skins. The length and surface area of each scar were measured to obtain an adjusted scar size. Orientation of lacerations (dorso-ventral or anterior-posterior) proved to be unimportant. Cut wounds were persistent to slaughter as were scratch marks, with only a small percentage of scratch wounds incurred at a young age not persisting to slaughter age. Mean scar size at slaughter became smaller with an increase in age at which the wounds were inflicted, except at 13 months of age where it was assumed that the wounds had not had sufficient time to heal properly. Deep cut wounds caused larger scars at slaughter age than superficial scratch damage. It seems that both superficial (scratches) and deep (cuts) wounds will result in lower skin grading, irrespective of age of infliction. This indicates that changes in chick rearing practices are necessary to reduce the incidence of skin damage if skin quality is to be improved.

Separate-sex rearing of slaughter ostriches was investigated as a management strategy to minimize skin damage. Day-old ostrich chicks were divided into three treatment groups; a group of mixed-gender and two single-sex groups, one male and one female. At three months of age, because of the large variation in live weights, the birds were sorted within treatment according to weight. Each gender treatment was represented by six replications and each weight class treatment was represented by nine replications. At slaughter, chest circumference, slaughter weight, carcass weight, skin weight, skin area and skin grading were recorded. The only slaughter trait that was affected by gender treatment was skin weight without fat, with all-male groups having significantly heavier skins than all-female groups. Behavioural observations, carried out at nine and 13 months of age, indicated that aggression was more prevalent in all-male groups compared to all-female and mixed-gender groups. The all-female groups had the lowest levels of aggression. Diurnal time-activity budgets were largely unaffected by the gender composition of the groups. Evaluation of the skins at slaughter showed that kick marks on the area outside of the crown were more prevalent in allmale groups, indicating that increased aggression was associated with increased kicking behaviour which led to skin damage. However, because of the location of the kick marks, skin grading was not influenced. Weight class treatment also affected the prevalence of kick marks. Aggression and kick marks on the skin were generally more pronounced in the groups comprising the heavier chicks, suggesting that body weight may have an important effect on hormone levels and aggressive behaviour. Because of the general lack of improvement in the skin grading of the ostriches due to the increased skin damage in all-male groups when separated, it is concluded that the practice of separate-sex rearing has no definite benefits for slaughter ostrich production and product quality.

Nutrition of breeding female birds can influence egg quality and is therefore extremely important for the development of the embryo and the successful hatching of a high quality chick. We investigated the effect of combining different levels of dietary energy and protein, with accompanied amino acid levels, in the diets of female ostriches on the composition of their eggs. Ninety pairs of breeding ostriches were divided randomly into nine groups of 10 pairs per group in a factorial design with three energy and three protein levels. The groups were fed diets with levels of 7.5, 8.5 and 9.5 MJ metabolisable energy/kg, each combined with each one of three protein levels 105, 120 and 135 g/kg respectively. Fresh eggs were collected from each group at the end of the breeding season and the albumen and yolk separated and analysed for protein and lipid content and for amino acid and mineral composition. No significant interaction between energy and protein levels occurred. Despite some differences in egg composition and amino acid concentrations, different dietary energy and protein levels for the most part had little or no effect on the composition of ostrich eggs.