RESUMEN. Este artículo pretende revitalizar una disciplina que ha permanecido inexplorada en los últimos años: la polemología. Esta disciplina, surgida a mediados del siglo XX para comprender la complejidad del fenómeno de la guerra, sus disímiles causas y consecuencias, ha sido aislada y catalogada como belicista. En ese sentido, mediante la revisión de sus principales postulados y su aplicación a las teorías de cooperación internacional, este artículo rescata su influjo pacifista y positivo. Para ello, se estudian las relaciones entre Chile y Perú, que demuestran su capacidad para superar paulatinamente la carga histórica de la Guerra del Pacífico, con el fin de sumar elementos para una nueva polemología latinoamericana, que potencie los estudios de la guerra en la región.

ABSTRACT. This article aims to revitalize a discipline that has remained unexplored in recent years: polemology. This discipline, which emerged in the mid-twentieth century to understand the complexity of the phenomenon of war, its dissimilar causes, and consequences, has been isolated and labeled as warmongering. By reviewing its main postulates and their application to the theories of international cooperation, this article rescues its pacifist and positive influence. To this end, we studied the relations between Chile and Peru, demonstrating their ability to gradually overcome the historical burden of the War of the Pacific, adding elements for a new Latin American polemology and enhancing war studies in the region.

Abstract: The article exposes the results of research with respect to the perceptions of students from the first to the sixth grade about bilingual intercultural education (EIB) in a rural school in La Araucanía. The methodology is qualitative. The data collection tool is a semi-directed interview, and the use of student narratives, by means of drawing. The data analysis technique content analysis in combination with the grounded theory. The main results show that there is a low motivation on the part of the students to learn the Mapuche language and culture as a result of the systemic racism that has existed in the indigenous society in general and in the school. This racism is transmitted consciously or unconsciously to the new generations through verbal and non-verbal communication, both from parents, teachers and peers in the educational environment. The main conclusions allow us to verify that: 1) the students have a favorable perception regarding how EIB is implemented in their school; 2) the low domain of the Mapunzugun by the students and the little use of the language in daily life situations have a negative impact on the predisposition to learn the language; and 3) the lack of motivation of the parents and the disengagement of the family and community environment in the teaching and learning processes of the students have a negative impact on the learning of the Mapuche language and culture.

Resumen: El artículo expone los resultados de investigación respecto de las percepciones de estudiantes de primero a sexto año básico sobre la educación intercultural bilingüe (EIB) en una escuela rural de La Araucanía. La metodología es cualitativa. El instrumento de recolección de datos es la entrevista semi-dirigida, y el uso de narrativas de estudiantes, por medio del dibujo. La técnica de análisis de la información es el análisis de contenido en complementariedad con la teoría fundamentada. Los principales resultados dan cuenta que existe una baja motivación por parte de los estudiantes para aprender la lengua y la cultura mapuche, producto del racismo sistémico que ha existido hacia lo indígena en la sociedad en general y en la escuela en particular, el que es transmitido de manera consciente o inconsciente a las nuevas generaciones a través de la comunicación verbal y no verbal, tanto de los padres, profesores y pares en el ámbito educativo. Las principales conclusiones nos permiten constatar que: 1) los estudiantes tienen una percepción favorable respecto a cómo se implementa la EIB en su escuela; 2) el bajo dominio del mapunzugun por parte de los estudiantes y el poco uso de la lengua en situaciones de la vida cotidiana inciden negativamente en la predisposición para aprender la lengua; y 3) la desmotivación de los padres y desvinculación del medio familiar y comunitaria en los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje de los estudiantes incide negativamente en el aprendizaje de la lengua y la cultura mapuche.

ABSTRACT Spathulenol was isolated from an extract of Azorella compacta Phil., Apiaceae, by various chromatographic method; identification of the chemical structure was confirmed by comparing its spectroscopic data with those reported in the literature. The anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis activity of spathulenol was evaluated on MDR, pre-XDR, and XDR clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis, as well as on the reference susceptible strain H37Rv and its cytotoxic activity was evaluated on the Vero Cell Line. The anti-M. tuberculosis activity of spathulenol was twice as potent against the MDR, pre-XDR, and XDR clinical isolates (6.25 µg/ml) than on the susceptible H37Rv strain (12.5 µg/ml). Additionally, the anti-M. tuberculosis activity shown by spathulenol was established as bactericidal on drug-resistant and susceptible strains of M. tuberculosis. Finally, cytotoxic activity on the Vero cell line (CC50 = 95.7 µg/ml) indicated that spathulenol is a selective anti-M. tuberculosis compound, with a selective index of 15.31 against drug-resistant clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis.

ABSTRACT In this paper we report the absolute configuration which has been determined from the refinement of the Flack parameter, x = 0.05(5), which indicate that the correct configuration had been assigned against 1353 (99%) CuKα Bijvoet pairs. On this basis the absolute configuration was assigned as C5R, C8S, C9R and C10S. The structure of 18-acetoxy-cis-cleroda-3,13E-dien-15-oic acid consists of a clerodane skeleton and the corresponding methyl groups are α-oriented (C8, C9) while C5 is β-oriented. The acidic lateral chain is β-oriented and the double bond between C13 and C14 has E isomeric. The ciclohexene, cyclohexane rings are cis fused, and in an sofa and chair conformation respectively. In the crystal the molecules are linked by one intermolecular O—H…O hydrogen bond forming 1D-dimensional chain with distance donor-acceptor of 2.060(6)Å with graph-set notation C 1 1(15).

ABSTRACT High-resolution mass spectrometry is currently used to determine the mass of biologically active compounds in plants and UHPLC-Orbitrap is a relatively new technology that allows fast fingerprinting and metabolomics analysis. In this work, several phenolic compounds including eleven phenolic acids, two fatty acids, two chromones and fourteen flavones were rapidly identified in the methanolic extracts of aerial parts and flowers of the unique Chilean species Ophryosporus triangularis Meyen, Asteraceae, growing in the Atacama Desert by means of ultrahigh resolution liquid chromatography orbitrap MS analysis (UHPLC-PDA-OT-MS) for the first time. The UHPLC-MS fingerprint generated can be used for the authentication of this endemic species. The methanolic extracts of the aerial parts and flowers showed also antioxidant capacities (65.34 ± 1.32 and 52.41 ± 1.87 µg/ml in the DPPH assay, 184.88 ± 13.22 and 196.80 ± 13.28 µmol TE/g dry weight in the ferric reducing power assay and 56.17 ± 3.03 and 65.41 ± 1.96% in the superoxide anion scavenging assay, respectively).

The bioactive compound 5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-2-phenylchroman-4-one (pinostrobin, I), was isolated from aerial parts of Nolana ramossisima I.M. Johnst., a Chilean endemic species, using a combination of medium pressure column chromatography and high speed countercurrent liquid-liquid chromatography (HSCCC). The compound crystallized as a non-centrosymmetric polymorph in the orthorhombic chiral space group P2(1)2(1)2(1). Its structure had been previously reported by Shoja (Acta Cryst. C45, 828, 1989) and Yamovoi et al. (Khim. Prir. Soedin (5), 361, 2001) in the centrosymmetric space groups Pbca and P21/c, respectively.

The anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity of natural products isolated from Azorella compacta was evaluated, with particular emphasis on their effect against intracellular amastigotes. Five diterpenoids from A. compacta derived from mulinane and azorellane were isolated and identified. Only two products, named azorellanol (Y-2) and mulin-11,3-dien-20-oic acid (Y-5), showed trypanocidal activity against all stages of T. cruzi including intracellular amastigotes. At 10 µM, these compounds displayed a strong lytic activity. It ranged from 88.4 ± 0.6 to 99.0 ± 1 % for all strains and stages evaluate, with an IC50 /18 h values of 20-84 µM and 41-87 µM, respectively. The development of intracellular amastigotes was also inhibited by nearly 60% at 25 µM. The trypanocidal molecules Y-2 and Y-5 did show different degrees of cytotoxicity depending on the cell line tested, with an IC50 /24 h ranging from 33.2 to 161.2 µM. We evaluated the effect of diterpenoids against intracellular T. cruzi forms by immunofluorescent identification of a specific membrane molecular marker (Ssp-4 antigen) of the T. cruzi amastigote forms. The accuracy and reproducibility of the measurements were found to be outstanding when examined by confocal microscopy.