Resumen Introducción. El camote (Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam) es sensible a la competencia por arvenses, cuyo control químico en Costa Rica se dificulta por la limitada información local generada sobre selectividad de herbicidas. Objetivo. Determinar la selectividad de seis herbicidas aplicados en diferentes etapas de desarrollo al camote Criollo y su efecto en la cobertura, biomasa y rendimiento del cultivo. Materiales y métodos. Entre agosto y diciembre 2021, se realizaron tres experimentos en la Estación Experimental Agrícola Fabio Baudrit Moreno, Universidad de Costa Rica, Alajuela, Costa Rica. Estos incluyeron la aplicación de herbicidas (en kg i.a. ha-1) de la siguiente manera: a) experimento 1: 0,36 de metribuzin, 1,50 de pendimetalina, 0,48 de clomazone, 0,075 de halosulfuron, 1,00 de linuron y 1,25 de metolaclor, aplicados seis días después de la siembra (dds) en diseño de bloques al azar con cuatro repeticiones; b) experimento 2: 1,00 de linuron y 0,36 de metribuzin, aplicados a los -1, 15 y 30 dds, en diseño de bloques al azar con arreglo factorial 2x3 y tres repeticiones; y c) experimento 3: 0,075 de halosulfuron y 0,36 de metribuzin, mezclado con 0,125 de fluazifop-p-butil en diseño de bloques al azar con tres repeticiones. En todos los casos se realizó deshierba 15 y 30 dds. Resultados. En ninguno de los tres experimentos se vio afectada la producción de raíces reservantes. Experimento 1: solo el halosulfuron causó daños leves en las plantas; ningún herbicida afectó la producción de biomasa aérea. Experimento 2: solo el linuron y metribuzin aplicados 15 y 30 dds causaron daños leves. Experimento 3: las mezclas causaron daños temporales en las plantas. Conclusiones. Los herbicidas evaluados fueron selectivos al camote variedad Criollo y no afectaron el rendimiento de raíces reservantes comercializables; solo halosulfuron causó daños leves en todas las formas de aplicación, y metribuzin y linuron solo en aplicaciones tardías.

Abstract Introduction. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam.) is sensitive to weed competition, and chemical control in Costa Rica is challenging due to limited local information on herbicide selectivity. Objective. To determine the selectivity of six herbicides applied at different stages of development to Criollo sweet potatoes and their effect on coverage, biomass, and crop yield. Materials and methods. Between August and December 2021, three experiments were conducted at the Fabio Baudrit Moreno Agricultural Experimental Station, Universidad de Costa Rica, Alajuela, Costa Rica. Herbicides were applied (in kg a.i. ha-1) as follows: a) Experiment 1: 0.36 of metribuzin, 1.50 of pendimethalin, 0.48 of clomazone, 0.075 of halosulfuron, 1.00 of linuron, and 1.25 of metolachlor, applied six days after planting (dap) in a randomized block design with four repetitions; b) Experiment 2: 1.00 of linuron and 0.36 of metribuzin 0.36, applied at -1, 15 and 30 dap, in a randomized block design with a 2x3 factorial arrangement and three repetitions; and c) Experiment 3: 0.075 of halosulfuron and 0.36 of metribuzin, mixed with 0.125 of fluazifop-p-butyl in a randomized block design with three repetitions. Weeding was performed at 15 and 30 dap in all cases. Results. Root yield was not affected in any of the three experiments. Experiment 1: Only halosulfuron caused mild damage to the plants; no herbicide affected above-ground biomass production. Experiment 2: Only linuron and metribuzin applied at 15 and 30 dap caused mild damage. Experiment 3: The mixtures caused temporary damage to the plants. Conclusions. The evaluated herbicides were selective to the Criollo sweet potatoes, and did not affect the yield of marketable storage roots. Only halosulfuron caused mild damage in all application forms, and metribuzin and linuron only in late applications.

Abstract Plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) that inhabit root rhizosphere of plants are of great agricultural importance due to their ability to produce phytohormones during root colonization. These phytohormones produce physiological changes in the plant that favor a greater absorption of nutrients, promote growth and increase production. This study analyzed the effect of inoculation of two of these bacteria, Azospirillum sp. and Pseudomonas fluorescens, under field conditions representative of the Andean Highlands. The experiment was carried out using flour corn seed of the INIAP-101 variety in a randomized complete block design with six repetitions. The treatments corresponded to: T1 (Azospirillum sp.), T2 (P. fluorescens), T3 (Azospirillum sp. and P. fluorescens), T4 (control, conventional chemical fertilization) and T5 (absolute control). The application of these bacteria significantly increased (p<0.05) the root length, the diameter of the cob, and the yield of fresh corn (“elotes” or “choclos”). The combined inoculation of these bacteria (T3) obtained the highest yield, with 19.70 t ha−1 of fresh corn; while the chemical control and the absolute control got 17.12 and 13.58 t ha−1 of fresh corn, respectively. The economic analysis of T3 reported a benefit/cost of 1.35, which indicates that the synergism of these two bacteria could be a sustainable strategy to improve yields and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers for corn production in the Andean region.

Resumen Las bacterias benéficas que habitan la rizósfera de las plantas son de gran interés agrícola debido a su capacidad para producir fitohormonas durante la colonización radicular. Estas fitohormonas producen cambios fisiológicos en la planta que favorecen una mayor absorción de nutrientes que provocan un rápido crecimiento vegetativo y una mayor producción. Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de la inoculación de dos de estas bacterias, Azospirillum sp. y Pseudomonas fluorescens en el cultivo de maíz harinoso bajo condiciones de campo típicas de la región alto andina. El experimento se realizó utilizando semilla de maíz harinoso de la variedad INIAP-101 con un diseño de bloques completos al azar y seis repeticiones. Los tratamientos correspondieron a: T1 (Azospirillum sp.), T2 (P. fluorescens), T3 (Azospirillum sp. y P. fluorescens), T4 (testigo con fertilización química convencional) y T5 (testigo absoluto). La aplicación de estas bacterias incrementó de manera significativa (p<0,05) la longitud de raíz, el diámetro de la mazorca y el rendimiento del maíz tierno (elotes o choclos). La inoculación combinada de estas bacterias (T3) obtuvo el mayor rendimiento con 19,70 t ha−1 de choclos, mientras que el testigo químico y el testigo absoluto obtuvieron 17,12 y 13,58 t ha−1 de choclos, respectivamente. El análisis económico de T3 reportó un coste/beneficio de 1,35, lo cual indicó que el sinergismo de estos dos géneros podría ser una estrategia sostenible para mejorar los rendimientos y reducir el uso de fertilizantes químicos en el cultivo de maíz de la región Andina.

Resumen El control biológico en caña de azúcar en Venezuela se ha logrado establecer como una medida única, con resultados óptimos del uso de parasitoides y entomopatógenos para el control de los taladradores del género Diatraea, y, posteriormente, de la candelilla Aeneolamia spp., ambas plagas claves del cultivo. Para los taladradores, se logró después de liberaciones sistemáticas de la mosca amazónica Lydella minense desde un inicio, a mediados del siglo XX y luego con el establecimiento de la avispa bracónida Cotesia flavipes, a partir de 1987. Para el control biológico de Aeneolamia varia, plaga que implicaba la aplicación frecuente de insecticidas, después de la introducción del uso del hongo entomopatógeno Metarhizium anisopliae desde 1977, se ha establecido como medida eficiente para el control de sus adultos, aunque las ninfas eran menos controladas. Este aspecto se resolvió mediante la introducción del nematodo entomopatógeno Heterorhabditis bacteriophora en 2004, el cual se viene utilizando en forma general, y prácticamente ya se tienen las medidas biológicas para evitar la aplicación de insecticidas. Como ejemplo se tiene a la Azucarera Río Turbio, aunque en las últimas zafras ha tenido una reducción en sus áreas, por diferentes factores. Durante los últimos 58 años, la infestación de Diatraea muestra una reducción de 15 a 3.18 %, con lo cual se salvan 170 552.62 toneladas métricas (TM), con un valor de US$ 49 196 045 y un costo del control biológico de US$ 1 187 189 lo que se traduce en un beneficio-costo de US$ 41.44. Antes del establecimiento del control biológico, Aeneolamia se controlaba exclusivamente con insecticidas químicos, aplicados al follaje para los adultos y al suelo para las ninfas. Simultáneamente desde entonces, se ha utilizado el hongo M. anisopliae producido por empresas nacionales, hasta cubrir 87 000 ha, entre 1986 y 1990. También, desde 2004 se inició la utilización de nematodos entomopatógenos para el control de ninfas de Aeneolamia.

Abstract The biological control in sugarcane in Venezuela has been established as a unique measure, having optimal results of the use of parasitoids and entomopathogens for the control of borers of the genus Diatraea, and later of the candelilla Aeneolamia spp., both key pests of the crop. For borers it was achieved after systematic releases of the Amazonian fly Lydella minense from the middle of the last century and then with the establishment of the braconid wasp Cotesia flavipes from 1987. For the biological control of Aenolamia varia, pest that involved the frequent application of insecticides, after the introduction of the use of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae since 1977, has been established as an efficient measure for the control of its adults, however, the nymphs were less controlled. This aspect was resolved through the introduction of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora in 2004, which has been widely used as a biological measure to avoid the application of insecticides. As an example, we have the Azucarera Río Turbio, although in the last harvests it has had a reduction in its areas due to different factors. During the last 58 years, Diatraea infestation shows a reduction of 15 to 3.18 %, which saves 170 552.62 metric tons with a value of US$ 49 196 045 and a cost of biological control of US$ 1 187 189 which translates into a benefit-cost of US$ 41.44. Before the establishment of biological control, Aeneolamia was controlled exclusively with chemical insecticides applied to foliage for adults and soil for nymphs. Simultaneously since then, the entomopathogenic fungus M. anisopliae produced by national companies has been used and this entomopathogen was used on 87 000 hectares between 1986 and 1990. Also since 2004, the methodology of using entomopathogenic nematodes to control Aeneolamia nymphs began.

ABSTRACT Chemical safety is a fundamental issue in any place where chemicals are handled because assessing occupational exposure to a chemical agent is essential to determine the importance and need to propose measures to eliminate, reduce and control the risk and protect the worker. The aim of this work was to assess chemical safety in a reagent depot by applying the COSHH Essentials method. Three variables were considered to categorise the risk: intrinsic hazard of the reagent, tendency to pass into the environment (volatility or pulverulence) and quantity of reagent stored. Information on the chemicals was collected from their safety data sheets. The COSHH Essentials analysis identified that 32 % of the reagents worked with fall into hazard category C (toxic reagents), 21 % into category B (harmful), 18 % into category D (very toxic and/or carcinogenic category 2), 16 % into category A (irritating to eyes and/or skin) and 13 % into category E (carcinogenic category 1A and 1B). Seventeen percent of the stored reagents are in risk level 4, which represents the highest risk level, as this is where the most hazardous chemical reagents are located. The results obtained show that there is a high risk of toxic chemicals in the warehouse. It is necessary to be aware of these factors and to control them and apply all relevant security measures.

RESUMEN La seguridad química es un tema fundamental en cualquier lugar donde se manipulan sustancias químicas porque evaluar la exposición laboral a un agente químico es fundamental para determinar la importancia y necesidad de proponer medidas de eliminación, reducción y control del riesgo y protección del trabajador. Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo evaluar la seguridad química en un depósito de reactivos aplicando el método COSHH Essentials. Para categorizar el riesgo se consideraron tres variables: peligrosidad intrínseca del reactivo, tendencia a pasar al ambiente (volatilidad o pulverulencia) y cantidad de reactivo almacenado. Se recopiló información de las sustancias químicas a través de sus fichas de seguridad. En el análisis COSHH Essentials se identificó que el 32 % de los reactivos con los que se trabajan entran en la categoría de peligrosidad C (reactivos tóxicos), el 21 % en la B (nocivos), el 18 % en la categoría D (muy tóxicos y/o cancerígenos categoría 2), el 16 % en la categoría A (irritantes para ojos y/o piel) y el 13 % en la E (cancerígenas categorías 1A y 1B). El 17 % de los reactivos almacenados están en un nivel de riesgos 4, que representa el de mayor riesgo, ya que en este se encuentran los reactivos químicos de mayor peligrosidad. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que existe en el depósito un alto riesgo por la presencia de productos químicos tóxicos. Es necesario tener conocimiento sobre estos factores y controlarlos y aplicar todas las medidas de seguridad pertinentes.

Resumo A cultura da cana-de-açúcar Saccharum spp. (Poales: Poaceae) produz diferentes derivados para o mundo: açúcar, etanol e bioenergia. Apesar da aplicação de pesticidas, os insetos-praga ainda causam prejuízos econômicos, dentre eles a cochonilha rosada da cana-de-açúcar Saccharicoccus sacchari (Cockerell, 1895) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) causando danos diretos e indiretos à planta. Este estudo avaliou a virulência de três espécies de nematoides entomopatogênicos (NEPs) e suas bactérias simbiontes contra a cochonilha rosada da cana-de-açúcar, em condições de laboratório. Quatorze tratamentos representados pelo controle (água destilada), Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar, 1976 (HB EN01) (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae), Steinernema rarum (Doucet, 1986) (PAM25) e Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser, 1955 (All) (Rhabditida: Steinermatidae) nas concentrações de 25, 50, 75 e 100 juvenis infectantes (JIs)/inseto, e o produto químico padrão, tiametoxam, foram testados. Em um segundo experimento, a bactéria Photorhabdus luminescens (Thomas e Poinar, 1979), Xenorhabdus szentirmaii Lengyel, 2005 e Xenorhabdus nematophila (Poinar e Thomas, 1965) (Enterobacterales: Morganellaceae) em 3,0 x 109 células/ml foram avaliadas para cada tratamento. Dez repetições foram estabelecidas, cada uma contendo dez fêmeas/cochonilhas dentro de uma placa de Petri de 10 cm, totalizando 100 indivíduos/tratamento. Todos os tratamentos foram mantidos em condições estáveis (25±1 ºC, U 70±10%, no escuro). Todas as espécies de nematoides infectaram S. sacchari. Steinerma rarum (PAM25) proporcionou a maior mortalidade contra a cochonilha rosada da cana-de-açúcar (79,25%), seguida por H. bacteriophora (HB EN01) (58,25%) e S. carpocapsae (All) (42,50%) (P<0,001). As taxas de mortalidade causada por X. szentirmaii, P. luminescens e X. nematophila foram de 40, 45 e 20%, respectivamente. Steinerma rarum (PAM25) tem condições de ser um agente potencial a ser incorporado ao manejo integrado de pragas da cana-de-açúcar.

Abstract Sugarcane crops Saccharum spp. (Poales: Poaceae) produces different derivatives to the world: sugar, ethanol and bioenergy. Despite the application of pesticides, insect pests still cause economic losses, among these the pink sugarcane mealybug Saccharicoccus sacchari (Cockerell, 1895) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) causing direct and indirect damage to the plant. This study assess the virulence of three entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) species and their symbiont bacteria against the pink sugarcane mealybug, under laboratory conditions. Fourteen treatments represented by control (distilled water), Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar, 1976 (HB EN01) (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae), Steinernema rarum (Doucet, 1986) (PAM25) and Steinernema carpocapsae Weiser, 1955 (All) (Rhabditida: Steinermatidae) at concentrations of 25, 50, 75 and 100 infective juveniles (IJs)/insect, and the standard chemical product, thiamethoxam, were assayed. In a second experiment, the bacteria Photorhabdus luminescens (Thomas and Poinar, 1979), Xenorhabdus szentirmaii Lengyel, 2005 and Xenorhabdus nematophila (Poinar and Thomas, 1965) (Enterobacterales: Morganellaceae) at 3.0 x 109 cells/ml were assessed for each treatment. Ten replications were stablished, each one counting ten females/mealybugs inside a 10 cm Petri dish, amounting 100 individuals/treatment. All treatments were kept under stable conditions (25±1 ºC, H 70±10%, in the dark). All nematodes species infected S. sacchari. Steinerma rarum (PAM25) provided the highest mortality against the pink sugarcane mealybug (79.25%), followed by H. bacteriophora (HB EN01) (58.25%) and S. carpocapsae (All) (42.50%) (P<0.001). The mortality rate caused by X. szentirmaii, P. luminescens and X. nematophila were 40, 45 and 20%, respectively. Steinerma rarum (PAM25) has conditions to be a potential agent to be incorporate into the integrated pest management in sugarcane.

Abstract Fusarium oxysporum is an entomopathogenic fungus, and it has anti-biological activity against arthropods. Ticks are blood sucking arthropods which are responsible for transmitting different diseases in humans and animals. The use of chemical insecticides against ticks is not eco-friendly option and results in the development of acaricide resistance. Previously, we had cultured a local isolate of Fusarium oxysporum from soil samples which were identified through microscopy and confirmed through molecular technique. In our previous experiments, we have prepared Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) at pH 7 and they had been characterized through X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), UV-visible and zeta-potential. In our current study, the AgNP were prepared at different pH conditions and characterized through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The protein molecules of F. oxysporum were charged with Ag ions. F. oxysporum NP were observed to enhance anti-biological activity by killing Rhipicephalus microplus and they caused 100% mortality at pH 4 and pH 5 in 24 h in anti-tick biological assay. Our study is the first report to do biological assay against Rhipicehalus ticks by using Fusarium AgNP at acidic pH. Biological control using entomopathogenic fungi can be the best alternative of the chemical method to control the tick population.

Resumo Fusarium oxysporum é um fungo entomopatogênico com atividade antibiológica contra artrópodes. Os carrapatos são artrópodes sugadores de sangue responsáveis pela transmissão de diversas doenças em humanos e animais. O uso de inseticidas químicos contra carrapatos não é uma opção ecologicamente correta e resulta no desenvolvimento de resistência acaricida. Anteriormente, havíamos cultivado um isolado local de Fusarium oxysporum a partir de amostras de solo que foram identificadas por microscopia e confirmadas por técnica molecular. Em nossos experimentos anteriores, preparamos nanopartículas de Prata (AgNP) em pH 7 e elas foram caracterizadas por Difração de Raios X (XRD), UV-visível e potencial zeta. No presente estudo, os AgNP foram preparados em diferentes condições de pH e caracterizados através de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV) e Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão (TEM). As moléculas de proteína de F. oxysporum foram carregadas com íons Ag. Assim, observou-se que F. oxysporum NP aumenta a atividade antibiológica matando Rhipicephalus microplus e causando 100% de mortalidade em pH 4 e pH 5 em 24h no ensaio biológico anticarrapato. Este estudo é o primeiro relato de caso a realizar um ensaio biológico contra carrapatos Rhipicehalus usando Fusarium AgNP em pH ácido. Nesse sentido, é possível concluir que o controle biológico utilizando fungos entomopatogênicos pode ser a melhor alternativa do método químico para controlar a população de carrapatos.

ABSTRACT: The resistance of Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyardgrass) to cyhalofop-p-butyl has already been confirmed in rice fields in Santa Catarina, Brazil. However, it is not known if this resistance affects other ACCase inhibitors. This study evaluated the occurrence of cross-resistance in Echinochloa crus-galli biotypes from the main rice-growing regions of Santa Catarina to ACCase inhibitors. The research was conducted in a greenhouse, using a completely randomized design with a factorial scheme that included three ACCase-inhibiting herbicides (cyhalofop-p-butyl, quizalofop-p-ethyl, and profoxydim) belonging to two chemical groups (aryl-oxifenoxi-propionates and cyclohexanediones), eight herbicide doses, and four biotypes evaluated in the F1 generation and two biotypes evaluated in the F2 generation. These biotypes were selected based on the results of a preliminary trial with 21 populations. The herbicides were applied when the plants presented two true leaves. After control evaluations, the lethal dose required to control 50% and 80% of the population (LD50 and LD80) and the resistance factor (RF) were determined by nonlinear regression. The results showed that only one biotype from Tubarão, Santa Catarina met all statistical and agronomic criteria and had cross-resistance to ACCase inhibitors confirmed. In both generations, the RF was greater than 1.0, and the dose required to achieve 80% control exceeded the maximum recommended dose on the label. Resistance levels were higher for herbicides belonging to the aryl-oxifenoxi-propionate chemical group, with RF greater than 7.0. For the cyclohexanedione chemical group, the RF was less than 5.0.

RESUMO: A resistência de capim-arroz (Echinochloa crus-galli) ao cyhalofop-p-butyl já foi confirmada em áreas de produção de arroz de Santa Catarina, entretanto não se sabe se essa resistência compromete outros inibidores da ACCase. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a ocorrência de resistência cruzada em biótipos de capim-arroz das principais regiões orizícolas do Estado de Santa Catarina a inibidores de ACCase. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida em casa de vegetação, em delineamento inteiramente casualizado com esquema fatorial, sendo: três herbicidas inibidores de ACCase (cyhalofop-p-butyl; quizalofop-p-ethyl e profoxydim) pertencentes a dois grupos químicos (ariloxifenoxipropionatos e ciclohexanodionas); oito doses dos herbicidas e quatro biótipos foram avaliados na geração F1 e dois biótipos na geração F2. Estes biótipos foram selecionados a partir dos resultados de um ensaio preliminar com 21 populações. A aplicação foi realizada quando as plantas apresentaram duas folhas verdadeiras. Após as avaliações de controle determinou-se, por regressão não-linear, a dose letal necessária para controlar 50% e 80% da população (DL50 e DL80) e o fator de resistência (FR). Os resultados demonstraram que apenas um biótipo de Tubarão-SC atendeu todos os critérios estatísticos e agronômicos e teve a resistência cruzada a inibidores da ACCase confirmada. Nas duas gerações observou-se que o FR foi superior a 1,0 e que a dose necessária para atingir o controle de 80% excedeu a dose máxima recomendada em bula. O nível de resistência foi superior para os herbicidas do grupo químico ariloxifenoxipropionatos, com FR maior que 7,0. Para o grupo químico ciclohexanodionas o FR foi menor que 5,0.

Summary: Pecan tree is one of the most important crops in the Comarca Lagunera. Zinc (Zn) deficiency is one of the main problems that limit its productivity. Nanotechnology includes nutrimental materials, which may substitute conventional fertilizers with diverse ef fects on yield, and biophysical and nutraceutical quality in fruits. The ef fects of foliar application of ZnO nanoparticles on pecan trees (Western variety) were evaluated through the following treatments: control, 4000 (ZnSO4), 2000 (nps ZnO), 4000 (nps ZnO) mg L-1. The experimental design was randomized blocks with four replications. Variables evaluated in fruit and tree were the following: yield, number of nuts kg-1, length and width of the nut, concentration of Zn in leaflets, fatty acids, crude protein, percentage of fat and moisture. A significant dif ference was observed in yield and Zn level in the leaflets, where the best treatment was 4000 mg L-1 of ZnO nanoparticles, while for length of fruit a significant dif ference was observed, being the 4000 mg L-1 of ZnSO4 treatment the lowest value. About nutraceutical variables, the content of fatty acids evaluated by the content of saturated fats (C16:0 and C18:0) showed highly significant changes, being the treatment with the dose of 4000 mg L-1 of nanoparticles the one with the highest percentage. Unsaturated fatty acids (C18:1 and C18:3) showed significant dif ferences, where the treatments evaluated with nanoparticles were the ones with a lower percentage. Protein content also showed highly significant dif ferences, being the control treatment and the chemical based on ZnSO4 the higher treatments. Nanoparticles can be used to improve yield and supply Zn content to the crop, but fruit quality is af fected from a nutritional point of view.

Resumen: El nogal pecanero (Carya illinoinensis) es uno de los cultivos más importantes de la Comarca Lagunera. La deficiencia de zinc (Zn) es uno de los principales problemas que limitan su productividad. La nanotecnología incluye materiales nutrimentales con los que se pueden sustituir fertilizantes convencionales con variado efecto en rendimiento, calidad biofísica y nutracéutica en el fruto. Los efectos de la aplicación foliar de nanopartículas de ZnO en nogal pecanero variedad Western fueron evaluados mediante dosis de Zn con los siguientes tratamientos: control, 4000 (ZnSO4), 2000 (nps ZnO), y 4000 (nps ZnO) mg L-1. El diseño experimental fue en bloques al azar con cuatro repeticiones. Las variables evaluadas en fruto y árbol fueron: rendimiento, número de nueces kg-1, largo y ancho de nuez, concentración de Zn en foliolos, ácidos grasos, proteína cruda, porcentaje de grasa y humedad. Se observó diferencia significativa en rendimiento y nivel de Zn en los foliolos, donde el mejor tratamiento fue 4000 mg L-1 de nanopartículas de ZnO, mientras que para la variable largo de nuez se observó diferencia significativa, siendo inferior el tratamiento de 4000 mg L-1 de ZnSO4. En las variables nutracéuticas, el contenido de ácidos grasos evaluado mediante el contenido de grasas saturadas (C16:0 y C18:0) mostró cambios altamente significativos, siendo el tratamiento con la dosis de 4000 mg L-1 de nanopartículas el que tuvo mayor porcentaje. Los ácidos grasos insaturados (C18:1 y C18:3) mostraron diferencias significativas, siendo los tratamientos evaluados con nanopartículas los que tuvieron un porcentaje inferior. El contenido de proteína también mostró diferencias altamente significativas, siendo el tratamiento control y el químico a base de ZnSO4 los tratamientos superiores. Las nanopartículas pueden ser usadas para mejorar el rendimiento y abastecer el contenido de Zn al cultivo, pero la calidad de fruto se ve afectada desde el punto de vista nutricional.

Resumen Introducción. Los forrajes en el trópico presentan una baja digestibilidad, por lo que se buscan alternativas alimenticias como la Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) para aumentar la calidad de la dieta ofrecida. Objetivo. Evaluar el efecto del tipo de fertilizante y la edad de rebrote del forraje de Tithonia diversifolia sobre los parámetros ruminales. Materiales y métodos. El trabajo se realizó en el año 2020 en la Finca Experimental Santa Lucía de la Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica. Se utilizó un diseño de parcelas divididas completamente al azar con el tipo de fertilizante como parcela principal y edad de rebrote como subparcela, con tres repeticiones por tratamiento. Los tipos de fertilizante fueron: lombricompost (L), químico (Q) y control (C) sin fertilizante. Las edades de rebrote evaluadas fueron 30, 50 y 70 días para un total de nueve tratamientos. Las variables evaluadas fueron: cinética de degradabilidad in situ de la materia seca (DISMS), pH, nitrógeno amoniacal (NH3), producción de gas y metano in vitro (CH4). Se realizó un ANDEVA para parcelas divididas. Resultados. La mayor DISMS se encontró en C30 (92,84 %) y menor en Q70 (64,21 %). El tipo de fertilización influyó sobre los contenidos de NH3, el mayor valor se presentó en los tratamientos con fertilización química (275,88 mg NH3/L fluido ruminal). C70 produjo la mayor cantidad de gas (79,59 mL/g), en contraste con Q30 que fue el de menor promedio (28,38 mL/g). La producción de CH4 no mostró diferencias significativas, con valores entre 3,42 y 8,67 mL CH4/g MS. Conclusión. La fertilización y edad de rebrote modificaron los parámetros ruminales in situ e in vitro. Los resultados obtenidos permiten considerar este recurso forrajero como un complemento de las gramíneas de pastoreo en el trópico, donde se generen efectos positivos sobre la digestibilidad de la MS, la producción de gas y de CH4.

Abstract Introduction. Forages in the tropics have low digestibility, which is why alternative feed option such as Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) are sought to improve the quality of the offered diet. Objective. To evaluate the effect of fertilizer type and the regrowth age of Tithonia diversifolia forage on rumimal parameters. Materials and methods. The study was conducted in 2020 at the Santa Lucía Experimental Farm of the Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica. A completely randomized split-plot design was used with fertilizer type as the main plot and regrowth age as subplot, with three replications per treatment. The fertilizer types were: vermicompost (L), chemical (Q), and control (C) without fertilizer use. The evaluated regrowth ages were 30, 50, and 70 days, resulting in a total of nine treatments. The variables assessed were: in situ dry matter degradability kinetics (DISMS), pH, ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3), in vitro gas, and methane production (CH4). An ANOVA was carried out for divided plots. Results. The highest DISMS was found in C30 (92.84 %) and the lowest in Q70 (64.21 %). The type of fertilization influenced NH3 contents, with the highest value observed in chemical fertilizer treatments (275.88 mg NH3/L rumen fluid). C70 produced the highest amount of gas (79.59 mL/g), whereas Q30 had the lowest average (28.38 mL/g). Methane production did not show significant differences, with values ranging from 3.42 to 8.67 mL CH4/g DM. Conclusion. Fertilization and regrowth age modified in situ and in vitro ruminal parameters. The obtained results suggest that this forage resource can be considered a supplement to grazing grasses in the tropics, where positive effects are generated on DM digestibility, gas, and CH4 production.

Abstract Forest species are a source of timber and non-timber products. In addition to being important in obtaining botanical extracts, they contain in their tissues numerous secondary metabolites that have been recognized for their diversity and biological activity, considered as an alternative against fungi that cause rot and degradation in wood (xylophagous fungi), as well as fungi that cause diseases in agricultural crops. In this sense, it was proposed to study Eysenhardtia polystachya as a natural preservative source of wood due to its high resistance to stem rot. For this, extracts were obtained from leaf, sapwood, and heartwood with solvents of different polarities. Scrutiny and selection of the extracts with greater efficacy in Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Ganoderma lucidum were carried out; they were subjected to column chromatography. The content of phenols and flavonoids was determined. The leaf extracts showed selectivity regarding mycelial inhibition in P. chrysosporium, with greater sensitivity to the extracts than G. lucidum. The synergistic effect of the compounds present favors inhibition in P. chrysosporium. Therefore, E. polystachya presents chemical compounds that can preserve the wood and prolong its use time against attack by xylophagous fungi and generate control in phytopathogenic fungi.

Resumen Las especies forestales, son fuente de productos maderables y no maderables. Además de ser importante en la obtención de extractos botánicos, contienen en sus tejidos numerosos metabolitos secundarios a los que se les han reconocido por su diversidad y actividad bilógica. considerados como una alternativa contra hongos causantes de pudrición y degradación en la madera (hongos xilófagos), así como los hongos causantes de enfermedades en cultivos agrícolas. En este sentido, se propuso el estudio de Eysenhardtia polystachya como fuente preservante natural de madera debido a su alta resistencia a la pudrición de sus tallos. Para ello, se obtuvieron extractos con disolventes de diferentes polaridades a partir de hoja, albura y duramen. Se realizó un escrutinio y selección de los extractos con mayor eficacia en Phaneroquetes crysosporum y Ganoderma lucidium; se sometió a cromatografía en columna. Se determinó el contenido de fenoles y flavonoides. Los extractos de hoja presentaron selectividad en cuanto a su inhibición micelial en P. crysosporum con mayor sensibilidad a los extractos que G. lucidium. El efecto sinérgico de los compuestos presentes favorece la inhibición en P. crysosporum. Por lo que, E. polystachya presenta compuestos químicos que pueden preservar la madera y prolongar su tiempo de uso ante el ataque por hongos xilófagos, así como generar un control en hongos fitopatógenos.

RESUMEN Este artículo está dedicado al análisis detallado de los mecanismos de disnea. Se tratarán el control químico de la respiración, los reflejos neurales, la mecánica respiratoria, el costo de oxígeno para respirar y la inadecuación entre tensión y longitud de la fibra muscular. En general, las diferentes explicaciones estuvieron asociadas al desarrollo de aparatos y metodologías de estudio de los laboratorios pulmonares. Todas las teorías tuvieron defensores y detractores e, interesantemente, con el desarrollo de sofisticadas técnicas neurofisiológicas y de imágenes funcionales ha sido posible jerarquizar cada uno de los mecanismos. Todas han sobrevivido al paso del tiempo y ninguna puede explicar de manera unicista la disnea en todas las situaciones clínicas, lo cual habla de la naturaleza compleja y multifactorial del fenómeno.

ABSTRACT This article is devoted to a detailed analysis of the mechanisms of dyspnea. Chemical control of respiration, neural reflexes, respiratory mechanics, the cost of oxygen to breathe, and the mismatch between tension and muscle fiber length will be discussed. In general, the different explanations were associated with the development of apparatus and study methodologies in pulmonary laboratories. All the theories had defenders and detractors and, interestingly, with the development of sophisticated neurophysiological techniques and functional imaging it has been possible to prioritize each of the mechanisms. All have survived the passage of time and none can explain dyspnea in all clinical situations, which speaks of the complex and multifactorial nature of the phenomenon.

RESUMEN Este artículo está dedicado al análisis detallado de los mecanismos de disnea. Se tra tarán el control químico de la respiración, los reflejos neurales, la mecánica respiratoria, el costo de oxígeno para respirar y la inadecuación entre tensión y longitud de la fibra muscular. En general, las diferentes explicaciones estuvieron asociadas al desarrollo de aparatos y metodologías de estudio de los laboratorios pulmonares. Todas las teorías tuvieron defensores y detractores e, interesantemente, con el desarrollo de sofisticadas técnicas neurofisiológicas y de imágenes funcionales ha sido posible jerarquizar cada uno de los mecanismos. Todas han sobrevivido al paso del tiempo y ninguna puede explicar de manera unicista la disnea en todas las situaciones clínicas, lo cual habla de la naturaleza compleja y multifactorial del fenómeno.

ABSTRACT This article is devoted to a detailed analysis of the mechanisms of dyspnea. Chemical control of respiration, neural reflexes, respiratory mechanics, the cost of oxygen to breathe, and the mismatch between tension and muscle fiber length will be discussed. In general, the different explanations were associated with the development of apparatus and study methodologies in pulmonary laboratories. All the theories had defenders and detractors and, interestingly, with the development of sophisticated neurophysiological techniques and functional imaging it has been possible to prioritize each of the mecha nisms. All have survived the passage of time and none can explain dyspnea in all clinical situations, which speaks of the complex and multifactorial nature of the phenomenon.

Abstract In Pamplona pea production is based on the use of high doses of chemical fertilizers that cause environmental damage and human health. Therefore, in this study the effect of different organic fertilizers was compared with chemical fertilization through six treatments: T0: control; T1: vermicompost full dose (7831,00 kg/ha); T2: vermicompost half dose (3915.50 kg/ha) + chemical fertilizer (FQ 15N 15 15 O) half the dose (703.50 kg/ha); T3: chicken manure + goat manure + sugarcane residues full dose (ABOB: 10573.00 kg/ha): T4: ABOB half dose (1407.00 kg/ha) plus CF half dose (703.50 kg/ha); T5: CF full dose (1407.00 kg/ha); T6: CF half the dose (703.50 kg/ha). It was evaluated: plant height (AP), pods per plant (NVP); pod length (LV) and yield (kg/ha). A 5% analysis of variance and a Tukey test for separation of means were applied. The mean AP was higher in T2 (172.27 cm). NVP was higher in T3 and T5 with respect to the control, however, between treatments no statistical differences were observed. LV was statistically higher in the treatments compared to the control, although there was no variation between treatments. Although no statistical differences were observed in the performance between treatments, T1 and T4 presented a performance superior to the control of 42.85% and 39.99%, respectively. It is possible to substitute or supplement chemical fertilizer with organic amendments and reduce the negative effect of pollution that they generate on the environment and the health of the people.

Resumen La producción de arveja en Pamplona se basa en el uso de altas dosis de fertilizantes químicos que generan daños ambientales y a la salud humana. Por lo tanto, en este estudio se comparó el efecto de diferentes abonos orgánicos con la fertilización química mediante seis tratamientos: T0: control; T1: vermicompost dosis completa (7831,00 kg/ha); T2: vermicompost mitad de la dosis (3915,50 kg/ha) + fertilizante químico (FQ 15N 15 15 O) mitad de la dosis (703,50 kg/ha); T3: gallinaza + caprinaza + residuos de caña de azúcar dosis completa (ABOB: 10573,00 kg/ha): T4: ABOB mitad dosis (1407,00 kg/ha) más FQ mitad de la dosis (703,50 kg/ha); T5: FQ dosis completa (1407,00 kg/ha); T6: FQ mitad de la dosis (703,50 kg/ha). Se evaluó: altura de la planta (AP), vainas por planta (NVP); longitud de las vainas (LV) y rendimiento (kg/ha). Se aplicó un análisis de varianza al 5% y una prueba de Tukey para la separación de medias. La AP promedio fue mayor en T2 (172,27 cm). El NVP fue más alto en T3 y T5 con respecto al control, sin embargo, no se observaron diferencias estadísticas entre tratamientos. La LV fue estadísticamente más alta en los tratamientos con respecto al control, aunque no hubo variación entre tratamientos. Sin embargo, no se observaron diferencias estadísticas en el rendimiento entre tratamientos, y T1 y T4 presentaron un rendimiento superior al control de 42,85% y 39,99%, respectivamente. Es posible sustituir o complementar el fertilizante químico con enmiendas orgánicas y reducir el efecto negativo de contaminación que generan sobre el ambiente y la salud de las personas.

Abstract This study aimed to evaluate the microstructure formed after the chemical treatment of teeth, for the development of autogenous grafts from the demineralized dentin matrix (DDM) technique, in order to identify the most efficient demineralizing solution. The specimens, originating from the root and coronal portion, were submitted to ultrasonic cleaning and drying in an oven for 1h at 100 ºC. Then, the density was determined by Archimedes’ principle for each specimen, using distilled water as immersion liquid. The samples were separated into five groups: Control group: negative control, Distilled water;EDTA group: positive control, trisodium EDTA; NaOCl group: 2.5% sodium hypochlorite; HCl-0.6M group: 0.6M hydrochloric acid; and H2O2/H2SO4 group: hydrogen peroxide and sulfuric acid. Each specimen was immersed for 1h in the corresponding group descaling solution at 60 ºC. Subsequently, the mass loss and density of the treated specimens were determined by Archimedes’ principle. Ultimately, the specimens of each group were characterized by microtomography, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Energy Dispersive Spectrometry X-ray (SEM-EDS). The results demonstrated that the H2O2/H2SO4 solution allowed the formation of interconnected micropores, suggesting better pore structures for application in scaffolds, when compared to the other studied solutions.

Resumo Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a microestrutura formada após o tratamento químico em dentes, para o desenvolvimento de enxertos autógenos a partir da técnica de matriz de dentina desmineralizada (DDM), a fim de identificar a solução desmineralizante mais eficiente. Os espécimes, provenientes da raiz e porção coronal, foram submetidos à limpeza ultrassônica e secagem em estufa por 1h a 100 ºC. Em seguida, a densidade foi determinada pelo princípio de Arquimedes para cada espécime, utilizando água destilada como líquido de imersão. As amostras foram separadas em cinco grupos: Controle: controle negativo, Água destilada; EDTA: controle positivo, EDTA trissódico; NaOCl: hipoclorito de sódio 2,5%; HCl-0.6M: ácido clorídrico 0,6M; e H2O2/H2SO4: peróxido de hidrogênio e ácido sulfúrico. Cada espécime foi imerso por 1h na solução descalcificante de grupo correspondente a 60 ºC. Posteriormente, a perda de massa e a densidade dos espécimes tratados foram determinadas pelo princípio de Arquimedes. Por fim, os espécimes de cada grupo foram caracterizados por microtomografia, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e espectrometria de energia dispersiva de raios-X (SEM-EDS). Os resultados demonstraram que a solução H2O2/H2SO4 permitiu a formação de microporos interligados, sugerindo melhores estruturas de poros para aplicação em scaffolds, quando comparada às demais soluções estudadas.

Resumen El trabajo tiene por objetivo analizar y evaluar la calidad del agua subterránea de la ciudad de Sucre, Bolivia, específicamente del área de cobertura del caudal Cajamarca. La metodología consistió inicialmente en la caracterización del área de estudio: localización, topografía, geología, marco hidrológico, hidrogeológico y precipitación pluvial. Posteriormente, se seleccionaron y tomaron muestras de siete pozos (P1-P7). Se realizaron los análisis microbiológicos, organolépticos, químicos e hidroquímicos, además de la evaluación para su uso en el área agrícola. Fueron considerados los requisitos mínimos del control de la calidad del agua para consumo humano de la Norma Boliviana 512, Ley Nº 1333 del Medio Ambiente y las guías para la calidad de agua potable de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Los resultados demuestran que todos los pozos cumplen con los requerimientos establecidos en los parámetros químicos. Sin embargo, los siete pozos se ven comprometidos en la caracterización microbiológica y organoléptica. Respecto al análisis hidroquímico, se observa que la mayoría de las muestras pertenecen al grupo Na^+-HCO_3^- con un contenido iónico relativamente elevado. Por otra parte, sólo los P2 y P7 son aptos para uso agrícola; mientras que, los P3 y P4 pueden ser empleadas bajo ciertas condiciones. Si bien la explotación de aguas subterráneas puede ser una alternativa a la demanda de agua, se debe realizar un análisis detallado de sus características y, si fuera necesario, un tratamiento para su uso.

Abstract The objective of this research work is to analyze and evaluate the quality of groundwater in the city of Sucre, Bolivia, specifically in the area covered by the Cajamarca flow. The methodology consisted initially in the characterization of the study area: location, topography, geology, hydrological and hydrogeological framework and rainfall. Subsequently, samples were selected and taken from seven wells (P1-P7). Microbiological, organoleptic, chemical and hydrochemical analyses were performed, as well as evaluation for agricultural use. The minimum requirements for water quality control for human consumption of Bolivian Standard 512, Law No. 1333 of the Environment and the guidelines for drinking water quality of the World Health Organization were considered. The results show that all the wells meet the requirements established in the chemical parameters. However, the seven wells are compromised in the microbiological and organoleptic characterization. Regarding the hydrochemical analysis, it is observed that most of the samples belong to the Na+-HCO3_- group with a relatively high ionic content. On the other hand, only P2 and P7 are suitable for agricultural use, while P3 and P4 can be used under certain conditions. Although groundwater exploitation can be an alternative to water demand, a detailed analysis of its characteristics and, if necessary, a treatment for its use should be carried out.