Abstract Thus, the objective of this work was to evaluate the performance of industrial drying and the quality of soybean grains using a direct-fire furnace automatically fed by wood chips. To represent the grains before drying, four samples were collected together with the sampling of the loads in the trucks carried out to classify the product in the storage unit. At drying, performance evaluations and specific energy consumption were carried out. The grains were evaluated for moisture content, germination, electrical conductivity, apparent specific mass, color, acidity index, and PAHs. Drying showed an average efficiency of 75.50%. The average chip consumption was 0.4403 kg of chip/kg of evaporated water. The specific energy consumption was 8,099.50 kJ/kg of evaporated water. The grains showed differences after drying in the characteristics of germination, electrical conductivity, and chroma. Six PAHs were detected in the samples before drying: (B(a)A, Chr, 5 MC, B(j)F, Dib(ai)P, and IcdP). After drying, in addition to the PAHs obtained before drying, five more were detected (B(b)F, B(k)F, B(a)P, Dib(al)P, and Dib(ah)A). Mean PAH concentrations were higher than the maximum values allowed by European Union legislation.

RESUMO A busca por bioadsorventes eficazes e de baixo custo para a remoção de corantes de efluentes industriais tem despertado a demanda por novas pesquisas a fim de amenizar os impactos negativos causados ao meio ambiente. Nesse sentido, o objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar o potencial da pele prata de café (PPC) como bioadsorvente de baixo custo na remoção do corante azul de metileno (MB) de soluções aquosas por meio dos estudos de cinética e equilíbrio de adsorção. O resíduo foi submetido a caracterizações físico-químicas, área de superfície específica (BET), presença de grupos funcionais (FTIR), análise elementar (CHNS-O), ponto de carga zero (pHPCZ) e cristalinidade (DRX). Os resultados mostraram que a PPC apresentou estrutura preponderantemente amorfa composta por holocelulose (38,36%), lignina (34,97%) e minerais (potássio, cálcio e magnésio). A baixa área de superfície específica (0,383 m2/g) foi compensada pela diversidade de grupos funcionais de superfície contendo oxigênio, confirmados pela predominância de carbono (55,93%), oxigênio (32,91%) e hidrogênio (6,37%). A análise pHPCZ mostrou que o ponto de carga zero da PPC foi de 6,49. O processo de equilíbrio foi atingido em 24 h, propiciando uma cinética retratada pelo modelo Elovich (R2(aj.)= 0,999; χ2= 0,233), o qual apresentou valores de taxas de adsorção inicial (α) e dessorção (β), de 2,405 mg/g.min e 0,587 mg/g, respectivamente. A isoterma que melhor se ajustou aos dados de equilíbrio para o sistema foi a de Langmuir (R2(aj.)= 0,991; χ2= 99,176), indicando adsorção em monocamada. A adsorção de MB pela PPC foi favorável, apresentando fatores de separação (RL) entre 0,58 e 0,03. A capacidade máxima de adsorção da PPC (Qmax= 313,69 mg/g) foi superior a outros tipos de adsorventes de baixo custo relatados na literatura, demonstrando assim o seu potencial uso como bioadsorvente para a remoção de corantes catiônicos de solução aquosa.

ABSTRACT The search for effective and low-cost adsorbents to remove dyes from industrial effluents has promoted the demand for new research aimed to mitigate negative impacts caused to the environment. In this sense, this work aimed to evaluate the potential of coffee silver skin (PPC) as a low-cost adsorbent in the removal of methylene blue (MB) dye from aqueous solutions through studies of kinetics and adsorption equilibrium. Subsequently, the material was subjected to physicochemical characterization, specific surface area (BET), presence of functional groups (FTIR), elemental analysis (CHNS-O), point of zero charge (pHPZC), and crystallinity (XRD). The results showed that PPC presented a predominantly amorphous structure composed of holocellulose (38.36%), lignin (34.97%), and minerals (potassium, calcium, and magnesium). The low specific surface area (0.383 m2/g) was compensated by the diversity of surface functional groups containing oxygen, confirmed by the predominance of carbon (55.93%), oxygen (32.91%), and hydrogen (6.37%). The pHPZC analysis showed that the point of zero charge of the PPC was 6.49. The equilibrium time of the adsorption process was 24 h, following kinetics described by the Elovich model (R2(aj.)= 0.999; χ2= 0.233), which represented an initial adsorption rate (α) and desorption rate (β) corresponding to 2.405 mg/g.min and 0.587 mg/g, respectively. The adsorption equilibrium data were better fitted by the Langmuir model (R2(aj.)= 0.991; χ2= 99.176), indicating that the adsorption of MB by PPC occurred on the monolayer. The adsorption of MB by PPC was favorable, presenting separation factors (RL) between 0.58 and 0.03. The maximum adsorption capacity of PPC (Qmax= 313.69 mg/g) was superior to other types of low-cost adsorbents reported in the literature, thus demonstrating its potential use as an adsorbent for the removal of cationic dyes from aqueous solution.

ABSTRACT Background: The fibres dimensions vary along a tree trunk, and these variations are related to the apical meristem and vascular cambium activities; understanding these variations would guide the best use of wood. There have been studies on the pattern of fibres dimensions variation along the tree trunk in the radial and longitudinal directions; however, the vast majority do not take into account the structure of the annual growth rings. Hence, this study aimed to obtain the pattern of fibres dimensions variation and their quality indexes along the tree trunk take into account the structure of the annual growth rings. Two Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis hybrid clones were used in the study. Ten-year-old trees were selected and discs were removed from 13 longitudinal positions. The disks were prepared and the growth rings were subsequently identified and the samples used for maceration were collected. Twenty fibres were measured in the annual growth rings present in each longitudinal position. Results: In the longitudinal direction, within the annual growth rings, the fibre dimensions and their quality indices did not show a well-defined pattern of variation. In the radial direction, the length, cell wall thickness, wall fraction, and Runkel ratio of the fibres tended to increase following the pith-bark direction, while the lumen diameter and flexibility coefficient decreased. Conclusion: Nevertheless, the fibre width and fibre slenderness index did not present a well-defined pattern of variation in the radial direction.

To overcome the negative impacts of unsustainable exploitation of forest resources, the Mozambican government has been trying to regulate the supply and demand of biomass, the main source of energy for the majo rity of the population. This paper reviews policies implemented in Mozambique aimed at increasing domestic energy production while promoting a sustainable use of biomass. Despite the efforts to reduce the level of biomass energy use, it remains the most attractive to local populations and, therefore, still has great importance in the national energy mix. Thus, rather than looking at woodfuels as an environmental problem, regulations should also recognise the dependence of local communities on these resources. Firewood remains the main energy source in rural areas, and approximately 0.36% of the forest in Mozambique is lost every year. The replacement of firewood and charcoal by other renewable sources of energy is still far from reality. Charcoal production continues to be carried out in traditional low-yield ovens and the levels of forest degradation are still alarming. As such, improvements to the existing regulation framework are still needed. HIGHLIGHTS: • Woody biomass remains the most attractive energy source in Mozambique. • The government implemented policies to address unsustainable use of biomass. • The policies did not lead to a sustainable use of biomass. • Policy design should consider both technical and socio-cultural aspects.

RESUMO Na presente pesquisa, objetivou-se avaliar os rendimentos gravimétricos da carbonização e as características qualitativas do carvão vegetal de clones de híbridos obtidos dos cruzamentos de espécies de Corymbia, e identificar os mais adequados para uso siderúrgico. Seis clones, aos 6 anos e 5 meses de idade, foram utilizados na pesquisa e amostradas cinco árvores de cada material genético. As carbonizações laboratoriais foram realizadas à temperatura final de 450°C, taxa de aquecimento de 100°C.h-1 e tempo de residência de 30 minutos. Os rendimentos gravimétricos da carbonização foram determinados em relação à madeira seca. O carvão produzido foi qualificado, considerando-se a análise química imediata, poder calorífico superior, densidade energética, consumo específico de madeira e a eficiência energética. Na avaliação do experimento, foi utilizado o delineamento inteiramente casualizado com cinco repetições (árvores). A análise multivariada de componentes principais foi empregada para obter a variância dos vetores normalizados, considerando as características avaliadas nos carvões. Os resultados obtidos indicaram o elevado potencial para a utilização dos materiais genéticos de Corymbia, para fins energéticos, sobretudo para a produção de carvão vegetal siderúrgico. O clone 1 foi o destaque para a produção de carvão vegetal e lenha, pois apresenta maiores densidades aparentes e energéticas, maior teor e rendimento em carbono fixo, além de possuir menor consumo específico de madeira por tonelada de carvão vegetal produzido. Os clones 2 e 4 foram os que mais se distinguiram dos demais, respectivamente, em decorrência de seu maior teor de cinzas e por apresentar maior consumo específico de madeira na produção de carvão. O uso de clones híbridos de Corymbia, para a produção de carvão vegetal, pode ser uma boa alternativa, em razão de seu rápido crescimento e qualidades semelhantes de madeira e carvão vegetal a outras espécies que já são usadas para a finalidade energética.

ABSTRACT This research aimed to evaluate the carbonization gravimetric yields and qualitative characteristics of the charcoal of hybrid clones obtained from the crossings of Corymbia species and to identify the most suitable for the steel industry. We used six clones, at six years and five months of age, sampling five trees of each genetic material. The laboratory carbonizations consisted of a final temperature of 450°C, a heating rate of 100°C.h-1, and a residence time of 30 minutes. We determined the carbonization gravimetric yields when compared to dry wood. The charcoal produced was qualified considering the proximate chemical analysis, superior calorific value, energy density, specific wood consumption, and energy efficiency. We organized the experiment in a completely randomized design with five replicates (trees). The multivariate principal component analysis determined the variance of the normalized vectors, considering the charcoal characteristics evaluated. The results indicated a high potential for the use of Corymbia genetic materials for energy purposes, especially for producing charcoal for the steel industry. Clone 1 was prominent for producing charcoal and firewood, given its higher apparent and energetic densities, fixed carbon content and yield, and lower specific wood consumption per ton of charcoal produced. Clones 2 and 4 most distinguished themselves from the others due to higher ash content and higher specific wood consumption, respectively. The use of Corymbia hybrid clones for producing charcoal may be a good alternative due to its rapid growth and wood and charcoal characteristics similar to those of other species that are already used for energy purposes.

Resumo Apesar da importância social, cultural e econômica para a Região Amazônica, o potencial energético da Mauritia flexuosa, popularmente conhecida como buriti, ainda não foi explorado para ampliar as possibilidades de uso dessa espécie pelas comunidades locais. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho é comparar o potencial dos tecidos que compõem o pecíolo de Mauritia flexuosa para combustão e carbonização. O miolo e casca do pecíolo foram separados e caracterizados por composição química (extrativos removíveis por água e totais, lignina e cinzas), umidade base úmida, composição imediata (teores de materiais voláteis, carbono fixo e cinzas), densidade básica, poder calorífico superior e análise termogravimétrica em atmosfera inerte de N2. Os dois tecidos do pecíolo de Mauritia flexuosa apresentaram vantagens para finalidades bioenergéticas, como: baixo teor de cinzas (≤ 2%), além de teor de carbono fixo (≈ 18%) e poder calorífico superior (≈ 18 MJ kg-1) adequados. Para miolo e casca, os teores de lignina (19 e 28%, respectivamente), extrativos (8,9 e 5%, respectivamente), e densidade básica (0,041 e 0,267 g cm-3, respectivamente) diferiram significativamente. Contudo, a composição imediata dos tecidos não foi influenciada por essas diferenças, ao contrário do poder calorífico e densidade energética. O comportamento termogravimétrico demonstrou taxa de degradação superior e rendimento final em massa inferior (7%) para o miolo em relação à casca. A casca apresentou melhor qualidade para combustão e carbonização em comparação ao miolo. Esse resultado é vantajoso para as comunidades extrativistas da Amazônia, pois a casca é um resíduo do processamento do pecíolo para obtenção do miolo, destinado à produção de artesanatos. Pela baixa densidade básica, o miolo é mais indicado para torrefação, densificação, pirólise para geração de bio-óleo e produção de filtros naturais e carvões ativados do que para combustão direta e carbonização.

Abstract Despite its social, cultural and economic importance for the Amazon region, the energy potential of Mauritia flexuosa, popularly known as buriti, has not yet been explored in order to expand the possible uses of this species by the local communities. Therefore, the aim of this work was to compare the tissues that comprise the petiole of Mauritia flexuosa for combustion and carbonization. The petiole core and bark were separated and characterized by chemical composition (total and water-soluble extractives, lignin, and ashes), moisture content (based humid mass), proximate composition (contents of volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash), basic density, higher heating value, and thermogravimetric analysis in N2 inert atmosphere. The two tissues from the Mauritia flexuosa petiole presented advantages for bioenergetic purposes, such as low ash content (≤ 2%) and higher heating value (≈ 18 MJ kg-1), in addition to suitable fixed carbon (≈ 18%). For the core and husk, the lignin contents (19 and 28%, respectively), extractives contents (9 and 5%, respectively), and basic density (0.041 and 0.267 g cm-3, respectively) significantly differed. However, the proximate composition of the tissues was not influenced by such differences, unlike the higher heating value and energy density. The thermogravimetric behavior showed higher degradation ratio and lower final mass yield (7%) for the core in comparison to the husk. The husk showed better quality for combustion and carbonization in comparison to the core. This is an advantageous result for the extractive activities of Amazonian communities because the husk is a waste from the petiole processing in order to obtain the core for handcraft. Due to the low basic density, the core can be noted for its use in torrefaction, densification, pyrolysis for the production of bio-oil and production of natural filters and activated charcoals, rather than direct combustion and carbonization.

ABSTRACT Activated carbons (AC) are high porosity and adsorptive carbonaceous materials. These adsorbents can be produced using different organic materials. Precursor material properties may impact their quality. This study aimed to produce activated carbon from Tectona grandis wood wastes, besides determining efficiency in adsorption of different pollutants. Chemical activation, with ZnCl2 (AC_ZnCl2) and CuSO4 (AC_CuSO4), and physical activation, with CO2 (AC_CO2) were performed. Activated carbons were characterized by FTIR, surface functional groups (Boehm) and surface area analysis. Moreover, ACs were tested regarding adsorption capacity of methylene blue (MB), phenol and Cr+6 ions in aqueous medium. Higher total pore volume (0.62 cm³ g-¹), micropore volume (0.31 cm³ g-¹) and surface area (524.50 m² g-¹) were obtained in AC_ZnCl2, which was also the most effective in MB and phenol adsorption. AC_CuSO4 obtained high adsorption capacity for phenol and presented functional groups different from the other AC. AC_CO2 was the second with better adsorption performance for all pollutants.

Abstract The anatomy of wood and charcoal was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy in three radial positions of E. urophylla and E. Grandis in different diameter classes at six years. The carbonization process was given in the muffle with an average rate of 0.5 °C increment per minute, using initial temperature of 150 °C and maximum of 450 °C. It was observed that the pore diameter presented higher values in the samples obtained in the internal position. The diameter classes of the trees almost did not influence the characteristics of the fibers. In the external position (close to the shell) fibers with higher values of cell wall thickness and smaller values of lumen diameter and width were identified. The fiber lumen diameter was not affected by the wood carbonization process, whereas the cell wall thickness and fiber width were reduced.

Abstract: This study aimed to determine the wood density using destructive and non-destructive sampling methods in a eucalypt hybrid clonal and determine the best point for the non-destructive sampling of the tree. A 5,6-year-oldEucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis hybrid clone, from an energetic forest, was used, planted in the municipal district of Martinho Campos, MG, Brazil. The trees were sampled by three methods of destructive sampling. The traditional method (0%, 25%, 50%,75% and 100% of the commercial height Hc); alternative method (2%, 10%, 30% and 70% Hc) and via a meter by meter method starting from a height of 1,30 m from the soil (DBH). Three non-destructive sampling methods were also appraised: Resistograph®, Pilodyn® and 22 mm diameter cores at a DBH. The use of the Resistograph® at the 1,10 m or 1,50 m points and the Pilodyn® at 1,50m of height from the soil results the best correlations with the basic density determined by the three destructive sampling methods considered.

Abstract: The use of fast-growing trees is a good economic strategy for charcoal production. Wood with adequate chemical and physical properties generally is positively correlated with charcoal quality. The objective of this research was to evaluate wood quality from fast-growing hybrids for charcoal production. Three Corymbia citriodora x Corymbia torelliana and four Corymba torelliana x Corymba citriodora hybrid clones were evaluated. Parameters used to evaluate wood quality were wood basic density, elemental and structural chemical composition, energy efficiency and thermogravimetric analysis and the parameters evaluated for charcoal quality were apparent relative density, gravimetric yield, high heating value, proximate analysis and energy efficiency. All clones had wood basic density superior than 0,5 g cm-3 and ash inferior than 1%, which are desirable for a good quality of charcoal. Lignin content did not differ among clones with an average less than the 28% recommended for energetic use. Although clones differed in wood parameters, as dry matter, high heating value, energy density, total extractives, holocellulose content, it did not reflect in charcoal quality differences. Wood from all clones had equal and satisfying high heating value of charcoal and energy efficiency quality for charcoal production and differed in apparent relative density and ash content.

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to establish multivariate models for the prediction of wood basic density with reference to the values of average density of trees and near infrared (NIR) spectra measured in the breast height. The wood basic density of 39 Eucalyptus clones was determined in the laboratory by means of the mean longitudinal positions of 0%, 2%, 10%, 30%, 50% and 75% of the commercial height of the tree by the gravimetric method. NIR spectra were recorded using a spectrometer using optical fiber probe and integrating sphere directly on the transverse plane of the solid wood in disks collected from diameter at breast height and later in the sawdust. The performance of the NIR based models was evaluated according to the spectral acquisition method and sample preparation. The results showed that the best model for basic density estimation using indirect measurements was developed from the average spectra per clone measured in solid wood disks (R2cv of 0.77 and RMSEcv of 15 kg.m-³).

Resumo Resíduos de bambu (Bambusa vulgaris) foram utilizados como matéria-prima para a produção de carvão ativado (CA). Os materiais foram coletados e transformados em CA mediante processos de carbonização (500°C, 1,67°C min-1, 60 min) e ativação (800°C, 10°C min-1, 60 min) com CO2 (100 mL min-1). O material obtido (CA CO2) foi caracterizado pelo seu rendimento, análise elementar, teor de cinzas, área superficial (SBET), método titulométrico de Boehm, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e utilizado como adsorvente para remoção dos contaminantes azul de metileno e fenol. Os modelos de isotermas de Langmuir e de Freundlich foram selecionados para entender o processo de adsorção. O CA CO2 produzido apresentou rendimento de 21,6%, teor de carbono de 82,13% e SBET de 856,78 m2 g-1, apresentando uma remoção rápida e elevada capacidade de adsorção para o azul de metileno (298,82 mg g-1) e fenol (558,29 mg g-1).

Abstract Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) wastes were used as raw material for producing activated carbon. The materials were collected and turned into activated carbons by carbonization (500 °C, 1.67 °C.min-1, 60 min) and activation (800 °C, 10 °C.min-1, 60 min) processes with CO2 (100 mL.min-1). The obtained material (CO2 AC) was characterized by its yield, elemental analysis, ash content, surface area (SBET), Boehm titration method, scanning electron microscopy and used as adsorbent for removing the methylene blue and phenol contaminants. The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models were selected for understanding the adsorption process. CO2 AC produced showed yield of 21.6%, carbon content of 82.13% and SBET of 856.78 m2.g-1, presenting rapid removal and high adsorption capacity for methylene blue (298.82 mg.g-1) and phenol (558.29 mg.g-1).

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to evaluate the thermal decomposition profile of 10 wood species from the semi-arid region of Brazil using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) to investigate their potential as biomass energy sources. First, flash carbonization was carried out in a muffle furnace, in which wood samples were heated to a maximum temperature of 500°C, and the product yields were determined. The chemical analysis of the wood of each species for the determination of extractive, lignin and ash contents was performed. TGA was performed using sawdust samples heated at 10°C.min−1 up to 625°C under a nitrogen atmosphere at a flow rate of 50 mL.min−1. The thermal decomposition profile was used to evaluate which wood species was more thermally stable. Mimosa tenuiflora and Poincianella pyramidalis woods were the most suitable as biomass energy sources for charcoal production because of their thermal stability and satisfactory carbonization yields. The thermal stability of the 10 wood samples was confirmed by the analysis of the carbonization yields.

ABSTRACT This work aimed to evaluate the elemental composition of different biomass components of the forest species Acacia mearnsii De Wild, Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden, Mimosa scabrella Benth and Ateleia glazioviana Baill, at their first, third and fifth year after planting, aiming at bioenergetic use. The biomass elemental composition was determined by quantifying the levels of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen. The three ages, the four species, and the four compartments differ in relation to the elementary constituents. The use of trees at any age allows for energy use. The fifth year presents the best carbon and hydrogen values, being the best age for using the biomass energy of the different species. A. mearnsii presents the highest carbon values for the leaf and A. glazioviana presents the highest hydrogen values for all compartments. The leaf is the best compartment for energetic use.

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the moisture content in the mass and energy balance of Eucalyptus wood during the pyrolysis process in a macro-lab scale. Two cylindrical specimens of 30 cm length, 12 cm diameter, and two pre-established moisture contents of 0.83% and 13%, were evaluated. The experiment was carried out in an electric oven, heating rate of 5oC.min-1 and final temperature of 500oC were the process conditions. Mass and energetic potentials of the non-condensable gases flow, were estimated from the data provided by the software Macro Thermogravimetric. The moisture content did not influence significantly in charcoal yields (30.2 e 30.4%). The highest energetic value of the non-condensable gases (2.549 MJ) during wood pyrolysis at 0.83% moisture content, was achieve. Water presence on wood decrease the concentration of the energetic compounds. The total energy concentrated in the charcoal and sub-products was 53% and 47%, respectively. The significant amount of sub-products suggests to consider the mass balance and flow energy compounds in further researches for integration and optimization technologies in both, production and gas burning processes, aiming to generate new industrial mechanisms to improve yield and quality of the products.