RESUMEN La creciente presión antropogénica sobre la Amazonia Oriental hace imperativo el diagnóstico de la degradación forestal y, particularmente, su efecto sobre las comunidades clave dentro de los ecosistemas ribereños, unos de los últimos bosques amazónicos remantes en el estado de Maranhão. La familia de hormigas Formicidae juega un papel fundamental en el suelo, refleja los cambios en el uso de la tierra y es un grupo abundante en los bosques estudiados. Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo determinar el efecto del gradiente sucesional en la riqueza, frecuencia y composición de esta familia. El muestreo fue realizado durante los periodos seco y lluvioso con el método TSBF. Los organismos recolectados se identificaron a nivel de morfoespecies y se crearon curvas de acumulación de especies. Fueron utilizados modelos lineales mixtos para evaluar los efectos del periodo de recolecta local y estado de sucesión en la riqueza y la frecuencia de las hormigas. Por otro lado, se utilizaron regresiones polinómicas para investigar la relación entre la riqueza y la frecuencia de los formícidos según la cobertura del dosel y la altura de la vegetación. La composición de especies fue representada a través del índice de similitud de Jaccard. En total, 1 940 individuos fueron separados en 86 morfoespecies. Se obtuvo más del 80 % de la riqueza de especies probables. La frecuencia y riqueza de hormigas aumentó significativamente siguiendo la sucesión con valores bajos en las áreas abiertas durante la estación seca. Asimismo, durante esta estación, la cobertura del dosel y la altura de la vegetación tuvieron un efecto parcial en la riqueza y frecuencia de Formicidae. Por su parte, las áreas de sucesión intermedia y avanzada presentaron una composición similar con 50 especies compartidas, seguidas de las áreas de sucesión temprana con 43 y el uso antrópico con 34. Concluimos que la eliminación de los bosques ribereños tiene un efecto considerable sobre la riqueza y frecuencia de Formicidae, con valores mínimos en áreas degradadas durante la estación seca. Por otro lado, las áreas de bosques transformadas en sistemas agrícolas sufrieron pérdidas de 41 y 56% en la riqueza y frecuencia respectivamente. Con la sucesión, se restauran la estructura y las funciones del bosque favoreciendo la recolonización de las especies de hormigas. Finalmente, estos himenópteros son un grupo clave en los programas de monitoreo para la conservación/restauración de los bosques ribereños locales.

Abstract The increasing anthropogenic pressure on Eastern Amazon makes imperative the diagnosis of forest degradation, particularly the effect on key communities within the riparian ecosystems, one of the last remaining Amazonian forests in Maranhão State. The ant family Formicidae is an abundant group in these types of forests plays a fundamental role on the soil and also reflects the land use changes. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the impact of riparian forest successional stages on the Formicidae richness, frequency, and composition. Sampling was performed during both dry and wet seasons using the TSBF method. Collected organisms were identified as morphospecies. Also, species-accumulation curves were created. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate the effects of seasonal, local, and successional stage on ant richness and frequency. Polynomial regression models were applied to investigate the relationship between ant richness and frequency with canopy cover and vegetation height. Lastly, the species composition was represented by the Jaccard similarity index. In total, we observed 1 940 individuals grouped into 86 morphospecies. We obtained more than 80 % of the probable species richness. Ant frequency and richness increased significantly, following the successional stage, with low values in the open areas, especially during the dry season. Canopy cover and vegetation height seemed to affect partially both Formicidae richness and frequency during the dry season. Intermediate and advanced successional areas presented similar composition (50) shared species, followed by the areas of early succession (43) and anthropic use (34). We concluded that the elimination of riparian forests produces a considerable effect on the richness and frequency of the Formicidae family, minimally affecting them in open areas during the dry season, but resulting in losses of 41 % in richness and 56 % in frequency in forest areas when they are transformed into agricultural systems. Nevertheless, succession restores forest structure and functions, thus favoring re-colonization of ant species. Formicidae reflects forest degradation and is a key group in monitoring programs for the conservation/restoration of local riparian forests.

Abstract The state of Maranhão, located in northeastern Brazil, comprises three biomes: Amazonian, Caatinga, and the Cerrado. To date, 99 ant species have been recorded in the literature from the state. In the present work, we provide for the first time a profile of the ant fauna in the state based on data from the historical literature and Brazilian institutional collections. The updated records on ant diversity for the state of Maranhão revealed a total of 279 species, belonging to 71 genera and 10 subfamilies. In total, 180 species are recorded for the first time in the state, of which four species recorded for the first time in Brazil. In summary, apart from documenting the ant fauna of the region, these results provide a basis for further studies and may contribute to future conservation efforts for the biomes present in this complex landscape.

Resumen Los sistemas agroforestales diversos concilian la producción de alimentos, la conservación de la biodiversidad y la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos como el secuestro de carbono atmosférico. Sin embargo, el papel de la riqueza florística sobre la producción de carbono en la biomasa de estos sistemas no está claro. Este estudio evaluó el efecto de la riqueza de especies y la estructura de la vegetación sobre el carbono en la biomasa de diferentes sistemas agroforestales, en la Amazonía Sur de Bolivia. Para eso, fueron estudiados 25 sistemas agroforestales y 4 bosques secundarios, en los departamentos de Santa Cruz y Beni. En cada sistema se instalaron parcelas circulares de 1 963 m2, donde la vegetación (árboles, arbustos y herbáceas) y necromasa (hojarasca, ramas y árboles muertos) fueron muestreados. Se utilizó funciones lineales y logarítmicas para evaluar el efecto de la riqueza y estructura de la vegetación sobre el carbono; y la partición de la varianza para examinar el efecto puro y compartido de las variables riqueza y estructura. Las regresiones mostraron una relación positiva fuerte de la riqueza de especies sobre el carbono de la biomasa (r2 = 0.74; P < 0.001). En la partición de la varianza, el 85.7 % de la variabilidad del carbono fue explicada por la riqueza, estructura y variación de la estructura. De forma aislada, la riqueza explicó el 12.7 %, la estructura el 8.8 % y la variación de la estructura el 4.8 %. Estos resultados confirman que el carbono en la biomasa sobre el suelo aumenta con la riqueza de especies y la variación estructural de la vegetación. Por lo tanto, sistemas agroforestales más biodiversos y estratificados son más eficientes en el uso de los recursos y pueden contribuir con la mitigación del cambio climático.

Abstract Diverse agroforestry systems conciliate food production, biodiversity conservation, and the provision of ecosystem services as atmospheric carbon sequestration. However, the role of floristic richness in the production of biomass in these systems is not clear. This study evaluated the effect of species richness and vegetation structure on aboveground biomass carbon in different agroforestry systems in the Southern Amazon of Bolivia. For that, 25 agroforestry systems and 4 secondary forests were studied in the departments of Santa Cruz and Beni. In each system, a 1 963 m2 circular plot was installed, where the vegetation (trees, shrubs and herbaceous) and necromass (leaf litter, branches and dead trees) were sampled. Linear and logarithmic functions were used to evaluate the effect of vegetation richness and structure on carbon, and the variance partition was used to examine the pure and shared effect of the richness and vegetation structure variables on carbon. Regressions showed a positive strong relationship between species richness and carbon (r2 = 0.74; P < 0.001). The partition of carbon variance showed that richness, structure and variation of the structure explained 85.7 %. Alone the richness explained 12.7 %, the structure 8.8 % and the variation of the structure 4.8 %. These results confirm that carbon in the aboveground biomass increases with species richness and structural variation of the vegetation. Therefore, more biodiverse and stratified agroforestry systems are more efficient in the use of resources and can contribute to climate change mitigation.

ResumenLa deforestación es una de las principales causas de pérdida de biodiversidad en todo el mundo. Las hormigas son clave como ingenieras del ecosistema, por lo tanto, la pérdida de la diversidad de hormigas puede indicar la pérdida de funciones cruciales de los ecosistemas. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la riqueza de hormigas del suelo y estimar si los niveles superiores (Subfamilia y Género) pueden ser usados como sustitutos para estimar la riqueza de especies en diferentes estados de sucesión del bosque (bosque primario, bosque secundario y sistema agroforestal) en la Amazonía Oriental. Fueron muestreadas 65 parcelas en el estado de Maranhão y Pará entre 2011 y 2014. El esquema de muestreo siguió el procedimiento de Biología de Suelos Tropicales y Fertilidad (TSBF). Primero caracterizamos los tipos de vegetación de acuerdo con su edad y luego se estimó la riqueza de especies. Para evaluar si los taxones superiores pueden utilizarse como sustitutos utilizamos funciones lineales y exponenciales y correlación de Pearson. En total, se identificaron 180 especies distribuidas en 60 géneros. Los resultados mostraron que la riqueza fue superior en el bosque secundario intermedio (88) y avanzado (76) y fue menor en el sistema agroforestal (38) y bosque ribereño primario (35). El género fue el mejor sustituto para estimar la riqueza de especies de hormigas a través de los diferentes tipos de sucesión vegetal, explicando entre el 72-97 % (P < 0.001) de la variabilidad total de especies. Nuestros resultados confirman que el uso del nivel de género es un excelente sustituto para estimar la riqueza de especies de hormigas en la región y tanto los bosques en regeneración y sistemas agroforestales pueden contribuir en la conservación de la comunidad de hormigas en la Amazonía Oriental.

Abstract:Deforestation in Amazon forests is one of the main causes for biodiversity loss worldwide. Ants are key into the ecosystem because act like engineers; hence, the loss of ants’ biodiversity may be a guide to measure the loss of essential functions into the ecosystems. The aim of this study was to evaluate soil ant’s richness and to estimate whether higher taxa levels (Subfamily and Genus) can be used as surrogates of species richness in different vegetation types (fallows, old-growth forests and agroforestry systems) in Eastern Amazon. The samples were taken in 65 areas in the Maranhão and Pará States in the period 2011-2014. The sampling scheme followed the procedure of Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF). Initially, the vegetation types were characterized according to their age and estimated species richness. Linear and exponential functions were applied to evaluate if higher taxa can be used as surrogates and correlated with the Pearson coefficient. In total, 180 species distributed in 60 genera were identified. The results showed that ant species richness was higher in intermediate fallows (88) and old secondary forest (76), and was lower in agroforestry systems (38) and mature riparian forest (35). The genus level was the best surrogate to estimate the ant’s species richness across the different vegetation types, and explained 72-97 % (P < 0.001) of the total species variability. The results confirmed that the genus level is an excellent surrogate to estimate the ant’s species richness in the region and that both fallows and agroforestry systems may contribute in the conservation of Eastern Amazon ant community. Rev. Biol. Trop. 65 (1): 279-291. Epub 2017 March 01.

O Centro de Endemismo Belém (CEB) -região biogeográfica localizada entre os rios Tocantins e Pindaré- é a área mais desmatada da Amazônia. Estudar a biota do solo dos remanescentes florestais e de áreas em regeneração (capoeiras) do CEB é fundamental para promover práticas agrícolas mais sustentáveis e orientar ações de restauração de áreas degradadas. Dessa forma, o objetivo desse estudo foi identificar os principais determinantes da composição e da diversidade dos grandes táxons de macrofauna do solo (uso atual do solo, núcleos geográficos, histórico de uso, freqüência de fogo) em uma cronoseqüência de capoeiras e florestas no CEB. A macrofauna foi amostrada em oito áreas de capoeiras baixas (4-7 anos), seis áreas de capoeiras médias (11-15 anos), sete áreas de capoeiras altas (20-40 anos), oito áreas de remanescentes de florestas e três áreas de pastagem. Sua composição e diversidade foi estudada através de Análises de Componentes Principais e Entre-classes. Um total de 9.225 indivíduos pertencentes a 29 grandes taxóns (ordens ou famílias) foram coletados nas 32 parcelas amostradas. A composição da macrofauna se mostrou sensível ao efeito do histórico de uso do solo e identificou comunidades significativamente distintas entre as micro-regiões, havendo nessa escala efeito da cronosequência de capoeiras e florestas. A intensidade do uso do solo levou a redução da abundância e da riqueza de predadores, indicando alterações significativas no funcionamento do solo. Esses resultados mostram um efeito duradouro da degradação sobre a macrofauna do solo e conseqüentemente sobre suas funções ecológicas.

The Belém Endemism Center (CEB; the biogeographic region located between the Tocantins and Pindaré rivers) is the most deforested area of the Amazon. To study the soil biota of the remaining old-growth and second-growth forests is essential to promote more sustainable farming practices, and provide orientation for degraded land restoration. The aim of this study was to identify the main determinants of the composition and diversity of major taxa of soil macrofauna (current soil use, geographic centers, soil use history, fire frequency) in a chronosequence of fallows and forests in the CEB. Macrofauna was sampled in eight sites of young secondary forests (4-7 y), six sites of medium secondary forests (11-15 y), seven sites of "old" secondary forests (20-40 y), eight sites of old-growth forest remnants and three sites of pastures. Its composition and diversity were analysed through Principal Component and Between-class Analyses. A total of 9.225 individuals from 29 major taxa (orders or families) were collected in the 32 plots. Soil macrofauna composition was very sensitive to soil use history and identified different communities among geographic centers. The intensity of soil use decreased the abundance and richness of predators, indicating long-lasting impacts of soil degradation on macrofauna composition and diversity, and therefore on soil ecological functions.

Deforestation of the Amazonian rainforest and conversion to agriculture with the use of fire creates a mosaic of occupied lands and secondary forests. Considering the fundamental role of soil macrofauna and the lack of information about its resilience to deforestation, this study characterized the earthworms, ants and other soil arthropod communities in secondary forests of 40 and 20 years of age and in cropping system and pastures prepared with slash-and-burn or chop-and-mulch in the Brazilian Eastern Amazonia. Soil macrofauna was sampled according to the TSBF (Tropical Soil Biological and Fertility) methodology. Four sub-indices and one "macrofauna soil health index" were calculated using five principal component analyses. The macrofauna index identified better soil health in chop-and-mulch crops, followed by the 40 yr-old forest and the chop-and-mulch pasture. These results confirmed the fundamental role of old secondary forests for soil biodiversity conservation and the potential of the chop-and-mulch technique to mitigate the effects of land use changes.

La deforestación de la selva húmeda en la Amazonia y su conversión para la agricultura con el uso del fuego crea un mosaico de tierras ocupadas y de bosques secundarios. Considerando el papel fundamental de la macrofauna del suelo y la falta de información sobre su resiliencia frente a la deforestación, este estudio caracterizó las comunidades de lombrices, hormigas y otros invertebrados del suelo en bosques secundarios de 40 y 20 años, en sistemas de cultivo con corte y quema o corte y trituración, y en pastizales con corte y quema o corte y trituración en la Amazonia oriental brasileña. La macrofauna fue colectada según el método TSBF (Tropical Soil Biological and Fertility). Cuatro sub-índices y un "índice macrofauna de salud del suelo" fueron calculados a partir de cinco análisis de componentes principales. El índice macrofauna apuntó una mejor salud del suelo en el sistema de cultivo con trituración seguido por el bosque secundario antiguo (40 años) y el pastizal con trituración. Estos resultados confirman el papel fundamental de los bosques secundarios antiguos para la conservación de la biodiversidad del suelo y el potencial de la trituración para mitigar los efectos de los cambios en el uso del suelo.

Este trabalho teve por objetivo estudar a viabilidade do uso de águas residuárias provenientes de um sistema biológico de tratamento de esgotos domésticos como alternativa à fertirrigação convencional de viveiros florestais, visando à produção de mudas de Eucalyptus grandis via subirrigação contínua. As variáveis avaliadas foram: altura, diâmetro do coleto, peso da matéria seca da parte aérea e da raiz, área foliar, razão raiz/parte aérea e concentração nutricional foliar. O desenvolvimento das plantas, em geral, foi superior no tratamento convencional com adubos minerais. A razão raiz/parte aérea foi favorecida no tratamento com água residuária. Os resultados indicaram que a água residuária pode ser utilizada na fertirrigação de viveiros para a produção do Eucalyptus grandis, pois todas as plantas cresceram, sem deficiência ou toxidez aparente. Entretanto, constatou-se que essas mudas necessitavam de um maior tempo no viveiro, em comparação com as produzidas com fertilizantes minerais.

This work studied the effect of treated domestic wastewater derived from a biological treatment system as an alternative to nursery conventional fertirrigation for Eucalyptus grandis seedling production. The evaluated variables were: height, basal diameter, shoot and roots dry weight, plant total leaf area, shoot/root ratio and leaf nutritional status of the seedlings. Greater development of seedlings was found when mineral fertilizers were used, but root/shoot ratio was greater when wastewater was used. The results showed that wastewater can be used as an alternative for conventional mineral fertirrigation, considering that all plants grew, without showing any nutritional deficiency or toxicity symptoms. Seedlings fertirrigated with wastewater, however, spend more time in the nursery, when compared to those produced with mineral fertilizers.

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo o aproveitamento da água residuária proveniente de um sistema biológico de tratamento de esgotos domésticos como alternativa à fertirrigação convencional de viveiros florestais, visando a produção de mudas de Croton floribundus (capixingui) e Copaifera langsdorffii (Copaíba) via subirrigação. As variáveis avaliadas mensalmente foram altura e diâmetro do coleto da muda e, ao final do experimento, peso da matéria seca da parte aérea e da raiz, área foliar, razão parte aérea/ raiz, análise nutricional foliar, análises químicas do substrato antes e após o ensaio e análises nutricionais periódicas da água residuária. O crescimento das plantas, em geral, foi superior no tratamento convencional com adubos minerais. O desenvolvimento do sistema radicular foi favorecido no tratamento com água residuária, o que pode ser característica desejável para maior sobrevivência das mudas no campo. Os resultados mostraram que a água residuária pode ser utilizada na fertirrigação de viveiros para produção das espécies estudadas, pois todas as plantas se mostraram vigorosas, com bom desenvolvimento, sem mortalidade, deficiência ou toxidez. Entretanto, constatou-se que essas mudas necessitarão de um maior tempo no viveiro, quando comparadas com as produzidas com fertilizantes minerais.

This work aimed to study the use of treated domestic wastewater from a biological treatment system as an alternative for a seedling-nursery conventional fertirrigation (irrigation fertilization) of Croton floribundus Spreng. (Euphorbiaceae) and Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. (Leguminosae Caesalpinioideae) production. The variables analyzed monthly were seedling height and diameter and shoot and root dry matter weight, leaf area, shoot/root ratio, leaf and substrate chemical status (before and after the experiment) and periodical waste water nutritional analyses. Plant growth was greater when chemical fertilizers were used, but root development was greater when treated wastewater was used (which was thought to promote increased survival in the field). The results showed that wastewater can be used for fertirrigation of tree nurseries, since all plants have demonstrated vigor and good development with no mortality, deficiency or toxicity symptoms. Seedlings fertirrigated with wastewater, however, will spend more nursery time, when compared to those fertirrigated with mineral fertilizers.

Experimental investigation and modeling of pulsed H2/CH4 plasmas used for diamond deposition are presented. Two plasma configurations are studied : a 2.45 GHz microwave cavity configuration and a 915 MHz surface-wave configuration. Time-resolved measurements of the gas temperature determined from the Doppler broadening of the Balmer Ha line, of the H-atom relative density and of the discharge volume (Vpl) are reported. The experimental time-variations of the gas temperature are characterized by a sharp increase at the beginning of the pulse (t < 250 µs) and a decrease down to a stable value at steady state (t > 1 ms). The simulations enable us to estimate time-variations of the electron energy distribution function, gas temperature and chemical species densities. The in-pulse steady state temperature obtained from the model is in agreement with the measured one, although a discrepancy is obtained on the shape of the early time-variation. Calculations were carried out in order to study the effects of the in-pulse power, the duty cycle and the off-plasma time on the H-atom and CH3-radical densities. It is seen that, at a constant power density averaged over a period, low duty cycles favor high H-atom and CH3 - radical densities, while too long off-plasma times reduce the H-atom density during the pulse. In addition, the production of H atoms was seen to be governed by thermal dissociation in the 2.45 GHz microwave cavity system, and by electronic impact dissociation in the 915 MHz surface wave system, the latter operating under high gas velocities.