Abstract: External workplace violence, is understood as that perpetrated by persons outside the organizations such us customers, users, assail ants, and it is a form of workplace violence, a problem of public health of growing magnitude. In Chile, the measurement of external labor violence as well as its links with mental health have been little studied, in part by the absence of evaluation tools. Objective: to develop and validate an instrument to measure and characterize external workplace violence, risk factors and effects on mental health in workers from the health, education, retail, and public administration. Methodology: qualitative and quantitative tech niques: focus groups, expert panel and application of the instrument to 554 workers. Results: factor analysis obtained 7 factors relating to physical, not physical violence and causes related to the work place, the users, and workers - men and women. The internal con sistency and reliability of the instrument are statistically significant. Confirms its ability to discriminate the existence of external work place violence, it intensity and risk factors in the studied sectors. Failure to observe significant correlations with psychopathology measured by GHQ-12. Conclusion: The instrument has the properties to discriminate and measure the external workplace violence in the sectors considered.

Resumen: La violencia laboral externa, aquella que ejercen personas que no tienen una relación de trabajo directa con las víctimas (clientes, usuarios, asaltantes), es parte constitutiva de la violencia laboral, un problema de salud pública de creciente magnitud. En Chile la medición de la violen cia laboral externa así como sus vínculos con la salud mental han sido poco estudiados, en parte por la inexistencia de instrumentos de eva luación. Objetivo: Elaborar y validar un instrumento para medir y caracterizar violencia externa, factores de riesgo y efectos en salud mental en trabajadores/as de la salud, educación, retail y administración pública. Metodología: técnicas cualitativas y cuantitativas: grupos focales, panel de expertos y aplicación del instrumento a 554 trabaja dores/as. Resultados: El análisis factorial obtiene 7 factores referidos a violencia física, no física y a causas vinculadas al lugar de trabajo, los/ as usuarios/as y los/as trabajadores/as. La consistencia interna y confia bilidad del instrumento son estadísticamente significativas. Se confirma su capacidad para discriminar la existencia de violencia laboral externa, su intensidad y factores de riesgo en los sectores estudiados. No se observan correlaciones significativas con psicopatología medida a tra vés del GHQ-12. Conclusiones: El instrumento tiene las propiedades para discriminar y medir la violencia laboral externa en los sectores estudiados.

ABSTRACT: This article presents results of the study "Organizational dimensions of violence at work in Chile considering occupational and gender inequalities" (Fondecyt Regular 2014. No. 1140060). It focused on three economic sectors: retail, banking and food processing. For each one, a non-probabilistic sample of three labor actors was selected: workers, managers and leaders, and union leaders. A qualitative methodology based on in-depth interviews was applied. The results indicate that violence at work derives from labor relations characterized by a strong imbalance of power between executives and workers, and by the predominance of authoritarian supervision styles that seek to discipline the labor force. It is part of the concept of "oppressive work regime". Gender violence at work expresses the articulation of two forms of oppression against women: their low formal power in organizations and their low social power derived from gender relations that subor dinate and discriminate against them. It manifests itself in greater exposure to ill-treatment associated with occupations of lower status and precarious employment conditions, "macho" attitudes and behav iors, sexual harassment and discrimination associated with motherhood.

RESUMEN: Este artículo expone resultados del estudio “Dimensiones organizacionales de la violencia en el trabajo en Chile considerando desigual dades ocupacionales y de género” (Fondecyt Regular 2014. N° 1140060). Se focalizó en tres sectores económicos: industria del retail, bancaria y de elaboración de alimentos. Para cada uno se seleccionó una muestra no probabilística de tres actores laborales: trabajadores y trabajadoras, directivos y jefaturas, y dirigentes/as sindicales. Se aplicó una metodología cualitativa basada en entrevistas en profun didad. Los resultados indican que la violencia en el trabajo deriva de relaciones laborales caracterizadas por un fuerte desbalance de poder entre ejecutivos y trabajadores/as, y por el predominio de estilos de supervisión autoritarios que buscan disciplinar a la fuerza de trabajo. Se enmarca en el concepto de “régimen de trabajo opresivo”. La vio lencia de género en el trabajo expresa la articulación de dos formas de opresión sobre las mujeres: su bajo poder formal en las organiza ciones y su bajo poder social derivado de relaciones de género que las subordinan y discriminan. Se manifiesta en mayor exposición al maltrato asociado a ocupaciones de menor estatus y a condiciones precarias de empleo, en actitudes y conductas “machistas”, acoso sexual y discriminaciones asociadas a la maternidad.

Resumo: O estudo estimou a prevalência de estresse no trabalho no Chile e suas associações com a exposição ocupacional ao risco psicossocial e qualidade do emprego, considerando as diferenças de gênero. Estudo transversal considerando uma amostra representativa nacional de 3.010 trabalhadores/as (1.486 mulheres e 1.524 homens). Dezoito por cento da amostra relataram estresse (23,8% mulheres vs. 14,8% de homens). Aqueles expostos a riscos psicossociais têm mais chances de sofrer estresse do que os não expostos, e as mulheres têm uma maior chance de sofrer estresse do que os homens. Homens e mulheres em empregos precários têm uma chance maior de estresse em comparação com aqueles com menos precariedade do emprego. No entanto, as mulheres em empregos precários têm uma maior chance de sofrer de estresse do que os homens em cargos semelhantes. Conclui-se que as mulheres têm uma maior proporção de empregos precários, estão mais expostas a riscos psicossociais e têm maior estresse, demonstrando a existência de uma dupla discriminação, social e de gênero, no mercado de trabalho no Chile.

Abstract: This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of work-related stress in Chile and its association with exposure to workplace psychosocial risks and quality of employment, considering gender differences. The cross-sectional study included a representative probabilistic national sample of 3,010 salaried workers (1,486 women and 1,524 men). Eighteen percent reported work-related stress (23.8% of women and 14.8% of men). People exposed to psychosocial risks had a higher probability of experiencing stress, and women were more likely to suffer stress than men. Women and men in precarious work showed increased likelihood of distress, compared to workers with less precarious jobs. However, women in precarious jobs were more likely to suffer stress than men in the same situation. The study concluded that women had more precarious jobs, experienced greater exposure to psychosocial risks, and suffered more stress than men. This is evidence of double discrimination (social and gender-based) in the Chilean labor market.

Resumen: El estudio estimó la prevalencia de distrés laboral en Chile y sus asociaciones con exposición a riesgo psicosocial laboral y calidad del empleo, considerando diferencias de género. El estudio transversal consideró una muestra probabilística representativa a nivel nacional de 3.010 asalariados/as en Chile (1.486 mujeres y 1.524 hombres). Un 18% reporta distrés (23,8% mujeres versus 14,8% hombres). Los expuestos a riesgos psicosociales tienen mayor chance de experimentar distrés que los no expuestos, y las mujeres presentan una chance de sufrir distrés mayor que los hombres. Hombres y mujeres en empleos precarios tienen una chance mayor de presentar distrés al compararse con quienes tienen menos precariedad laboral. No obstante, mujeres en empleos precarios tienen mayor chance de sufrir distrés que los hombres en empleos similares. Se concluye que las mujeres ocupan empleos precarios en mayor proporción, están más expuestas a riesgos psicosociales y presentan mayor distrés, evidenciando la existencia de una doble discriminación-social y de género-en el mercado laboral en Chile.

Resumo: O estudo estimou a prevalência de estresse no trabalho no Chile e suas associações com a exposição ocupacional ao risco psicossocial e qualidade do emprego, considerando as diferenças de gênero. Estudo transversal considerando uma amostra representativa nacional de 3.010 trabalhadores/as (1.486 mulheres e 1.524 homens). Dezoito por cento da amostra relataram estresse (23,8% mulheres vs. 14,8% de homens). Aqueles expostos a riscos psicossociais têm mais chances de sofrer estresse do que os não expostos, e as mulheres têm uma maior chance de sofrer estresse do que os homens. Homens e mulheres em empregos precários têm uma chance maior de estresse em comparação com aqueles com menos precariedade do emprego. No entanto, as mulheres em empregos precários têm uma maior chance de sofrer de estresse do que os homens em cargos semelhantes. Conclui-se que as mulheres têm uma maior proporção de empregos precários, estão mais expostas a riscos psicossociais e têm maior estresse, demonstrando a existência de uma dupla discriminação, social e de gênero, no mercado de trabalho no Chile.

Resumen: El estudio estimó la prevalencia de distrés laboral en Chile y sus asociaciones con exposición a riesgo psicosocial laboral y calidad del empleo, considerando diferencias de género. El estudio transversal consideró una muestra probabilística representativa a nivel nacional de 3.010 asalariados/as en Chile (1.486 mujeres y 1.524 hombres). Un 18% reporta distrés (23,8% mujeres versus 14,8% hombres). Los expuestos a riesgos psicosociales tienen mayor chance de experimentar distrés que los no expuestos, y las mujeres presentan una chance de sufrir distrés mayor que los hombres. Hombres y mujeres en empleos precarios tienen una chance mayor de presentar distrés al compararse con quienes tienen menos precariedad laboral. No obstante, mujeres en empleos precarios tienen mayor chance de sufrir distrés que los hombres en empleos similares. Se concluye que las mujeres ocupan empleos precarios en mayor proporción, están más expuestas a riesgos psicosociales y presentan mayor distrés, evidenciando la existencia de una doble discriminación-social y de género-en el mercado laboral en Chile.

Abstract: This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of work-related stress in Chile and its association with exposure to workplace psychosocial risks and quality of employment, considering gender differences. The cross-sectional study included a representative probabilistic national sample of 3,010 salaried workers (1,486 women and 1,524 men). Eighteen percent reported work-related stress (23.8% of women and 14.8% of men). People exposed to psychosocial risks had a higher probability of experiencing stress, and women were more likely to suffer stress than men. Women and men in precarious work showed increased likelihood of distress, compared to workers with less precarious jobs. However, women in precarious jobs were more likely to suffer stress than men in the same situation. The study concluded that women had more precarious jobs, experienced greater exposure to psychosocial risks, and suffered more stress than men. This is evidence of double discrimination (social and gender-based) in the Chilean labor market.

Introduction: In the context of public policies on psychosocial risks in Chile, the need arises to include amongst these violence and bullying at work and obtain valid and reliable instruments for its measurement. Objectives: It is proposed to validate the inventory of Violence and Bullying at Work (IVAPT - Pando) in Chilean workforce; Method: The process consisted of: a) content validation; b) semantic adaptation of the questionnaire and its complementarity with the addition of items designed to measure violence by actors external to the organization; c) final application to a total sample of 700 subjects to analyze the psychometric properties of the instrument; d) elaboration of reference scales; and, e) study of convergent validity with the GHQ. Results: The presence of three components of the original instrument is confirmed, and in the modified instrument emerges a fourth factor on violence by actors outside the organization. Internal consistency and reliability of both versions remain high. The instrument's capacity to discriminate the presence and intensity of violence and harassment in the sectors studied is confirmed. Significant correlations are presented with the presence of psychopathology as measured by the GHQ. Conclusions: The instrument is useful for measuring workplace violence but it should be paid attention to some difficulties in its application.

Introducción: En el contexto de las políticas públicas sobre riesgos psicosociales en Chile, se plantea la necesidad de incluir entre ellos la violencia y el acoso psicológico y disponer de instrumentos válidos y confiables para su medida. Objetivos: se propone validar el Inventario de Violencia y Acoso Psicológico en el Trabajo (IVAPT-Pando) en la población laboral chilena. Método: El proceso consistió en: a) validación de contenidos; b) adaptación semántica del instrumento e incorporación de nuevos ítems orientados a medir violencia ejercida por actores externos a la organización; c) aplicación de la versión final del instrumento a una muestra de 700 trabajadores/as para evaluar sus propiedades psicométricas; d) análisis de validez convergente con el GHQ; y, e) elaboración de baremos referenciales. Resultados: Se confirma la presencia de tres factores componentes del instrumento original y la emergencia de un cuarto factor relativo a violencia externa. La consistencia interna y confiabilidad de ambas versiones son estadísticamente significativas. Se confirma la capacidad del instrumento para discriminar la existencia de presencia e intensidad de la violencia psicológica y de acoso laboral en los sectores estudiados. Se presentan correlaciones significativas con la presencia de psicopatología medida a través del GHQ. Conclusiones: El instrumento tiene las propiedades para discriminar y medir la violencia laboral en los sectores estudiados, pero debe atenderse a algunas dificultades en su aplicación.

This article revisits some of the key debates on women’s employment in 20th-century Chile and reviews the range of views extant on the status of women in the labor market and their domestic and caregiving roles. Through much of the early part of the century, the prevailing view regarded women’s employment, especially that of poor women, as threatening reproductive capacity. Midway through the century, new voices began to challenge the perceived clash between gainful employment and motherhood by attaching more positive meaning to employment as a chance for women’s personal and professional growth. Through the past few decades, the rising diversification and professionalization of women’s labor set the stage for increasingly affirmative views linking women’s employment to improved opportunities for personal and professional growth, financial independence, and poverty reduction. The debate over women’s employment is a prime locus for an examination of the status of women, the division of productive and reproductive labor in each time period, and the role of labor in forging gender identities.

El artículo analiza algunos debates que se originaron en Chile durante el siglo XX en torno al empleo femenino, como una forma de aproximarse a las visiones sobre la situación de las mujeres en el mercado de trabajo, y su papel en el trabajo doméstico y de cuidado. Durante las primeras décadas del siglo predomina una visión del empleo femenino, centrado fundamentalmente en las obreras, como un problema que amenazaba sus capacidades reproductivas y que se asociaba predominantemente con mujeres pobres. A mediados de siglo, junto con la mantención de esta concepción conflictiva de las actividades remuneradas y la maternidad, se advierten otras voces que reconocen sentidos más positivos del empleo para las mujeres, como posibilidades de desarrollo personal y profesional. Durante las últimas décadas, en el contexto de un aumento, diversificación y mayor profesionalización de la participación laboral femenina, se observan visiones más positivas que vinculan el empleo de las mujeres con mayores posibilidades de desarrollo personal y profesional, autonomía económica y reducción de niveles de pobreza. Los debates sobre el trabajo de las mujeres constituyen un lugar que permite analizar, no solo la situación de ellas, sino que aproximarse a la forma cómo en cada periodo se organiza la distribución del trabajo productivo y reproductivo, así como el papel que ocupa el trabajo en la construcción de las identidades de género.