Determining the death burden for prioritising public health interventions necessitates detailed data on the causal pathways to death. Postmortem minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS), incorporating histology, molecular and microbial culture diagnostics, enhances cause-of-death attribution, particularly for infectious deaths. MITS proves a valid alternative to full diagnostic autopsies, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In Soweto, South Africa (SA), the Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) programme has delineated over 1 000 child and stillbirth deaths since 2017. This SA CHAMPS site supports advocating for the use of postmortem MITS as routine practice, for more granular insights into under-5 mortality causes. This knowledge is crucial for SA's pursuit of Sustainable Development Goal 3.2, targeting reduced neonatal and under-5 mortality rates. This commentary explores the public health advantages and ethicolegal considerations surrounding implementing MITS as standard of care for stillbirths, neonatal and paediatric deaths in SA. Furthermore, based on the data from CHAMPS, we present three pragmatic algorithmic approaches to the wide array of testing options for cost-effectiveness and scalability of postmortem MITS in South African state facilities.

BACKGROUND. More comprehensive immunisation regimens, strengthening of HIV prevention and management programmes and improved socioeconomic conditions have impacted on the epidemiology of paediatric community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in South Africa (SA). OBJECTIVES. To summarise effective preventive strategies to reduce the burden of childhood CAP. METHODS. An expert subgroup reviewed existing SA guidelines and new publications focusing on prevention. Published evidence on pneumonia prevention informed the revisions; in the absence of evidence, expert opinion was used. Evidence was graded using the British Thoracic Society (BTS) grading system. RECOMMENDATIONS. General measures for prevention include minimising exposure to tobacco smoke or air pollution, breastfeeding, optimising nutrition, optimising maternal health from pregnancy onwards, adequate antenatal care and improvement in socioeconomic and living conditions. Prevention of viral transmission, including SARS-CoV-2, can be achieved by hand hygiene, environmental decontamination, use of masks and isolation of infected people. Specific preventive measures include vaccines as contained in the Expanded Programme on Immunisation schedule, isoniazid prophylaxis for tuberculosis, co-trimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV-infected infants and children who are immunosuppressed, and timely diagnosis of HIV, as well as antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation. HIV-infected children treated with ART from early infancy, and HIV-exposed children, have similar immunogenicity and immune responses to most childhood vaccines as HIV-unexposed infants. VALIDATION. These recommendations are based on available published evidence supplemented by the consensus opinion of SA paediatric experts, and are consistent with those in published international guidelines.

BACKGROUND. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) administration and other advances have been associated with a shift in the aetiological spectrum of community-acquired pneumonia, necessitating reconsideration of empiric antibiotic treatment guidelines. Management strategies have also evolved in the last decade. OBJECTIVES. To produce revised guidelines for the treatment of pneumonia in South African (SA) children, including ambulatory, hospital and intensive care management. METHODS. An expert subgroup, reviewing evidence on the management of childhood pneumonia, was convened as part of a broader group revising SA guidelines. Evidence was graded using the British Thoracic Society (BTS) grading system and recommendations were made. RESULTS. Antibiotic treatment depends on the child's age, possible aetiology, antimicrobial resistance patterns, previous treatment, as well as factors affecting host susceptibility, including HIV, and nutritional and vaccination status. All children with signs of severe pneumonia should receive antibiotics. Children <1 month of age with pneumonia should be hospitalised and treated with ampicillin and an aminoglycoside. For treatment of ambulatory children >1 month of age, high-dose amoxicillin remains the preferred antibiotic. For severe pneumonia in this age group, hospitalisation and empiric treatment with amoxicillin-clavulanate orally is recommended; if oral therapy is not tolerated, intravenous therapy is recommended. Generally, 5 days of therapy is proposed, but longer duration may be needed in cases of severe or complicated disease. A macrolide antibiotic should be used if pertussis, mycoplasma or chlamydia pneumonia is suspected. Most hypoxic children can receive oxygen via nasal cannulae, but respiratory support should be individualised and extends to non-invasive and invasive ventilation in some cases. Children should be fed enterally; if this is not possible, administer intravenous isotonic fluids at <80% of maintenance, with monitoring of sodium levels. Empiric antibiotic treatment is the same in HIV-infected, HIV-exposed uninfected and HIV-uninfected children, although treatment for pneumocystis pneumonia and/or cytomegalovirus pneumonia should be considered in HIV-infected infants, especially in the absence of combination antiretroviral therapy. CONCLUSIONS. Updated guidelines optimise the management of childhood pneumonia in the context of changing epidemiology, improvements in HIV prevention and new evidence on management.

BACKGROUND. Vitamin D deficiency (VDD) in pregnant women has been associated with adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes. 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels are affected by numerous factors, including vitamin D intake, skin pigmentation, latitude and season of the year; they therefore vary by race and country. Vitamin D status in pregnant women and their offspring in South Africa (SA) is not well established. OBJECTIVES. To assess vitamin D status by measuring serum 25(OH)D in pregnant black SA women and their offspring in Johannesburg (latitude 26°S) and to assess whether vitamin D status is affected by maternal HIV infection. METHODS. We prospectively enrolled pregnant women and their healthy neonates, and measured 25(OH)D in maternal and cord blood at delivery. Pregnant women were stratified by their HIV status. Predictors of maternal and neonatal VDD (levels <30 nmol/L) were assessed using multiple logistic regression analysis. RESULTS. A total of 291 pregnant women and their healthy neonates were enrolled over a 21-month period. Mean (standard deviation) maternal and cord blood 25(OH)D levels were 57.0 (29.7) and 41.9 (21.0) nmol/L and the prevalence of VDD was 15.9% and 32.8%, respectively. On average, concentrations of 25(OH)D in cord blood were ~80% of those in the mother. There was no association between cord 25(OH)D and gestational age, but levels were associated with birth weight (p<0.001). There were no differences in maternal or cord blood 25(OH)D levels between those HIV-infected or uninfected. The predictor of VDD in mothers was giving birth in winter (odds ratio (OR) 2.87, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.47 - 5.61), and in neonates the predictors were maternal age (OR 16.5, 95% CI 1.82 - 149), being born in winter (OR 3.68, 95% CI 2.05 - 6.61), being born by caesarean section (OR 4.92, 95% CI 1.56 - 15.57) and being of low birth weight (OR 1.99, 95% CI 1.13 - 3.50). CONCLUSIONS. Among black SA women delivering in Johannesburg, about one in six mothers and one in three neonates have 25(OH)D levels indicative of VDD. Maternal HIV status appears not to affect levels of 25(OH)D in either the mother or her neonate. Research on the effects of VDD on the outcomes of pregnancy and the best methods to combat the high prevalence of VDD in women of childbearing age in the SA context is required.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse trends in reported invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease in South Africa within the first five years of introduction of conjugate Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine in the routine child immunization schedule. METHODS: We used national laboratory-based surveillance data to identify cases of invasive H. influenzae disease between July 1999 and June 2004, and submitted isolates for serotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. FINDINGS: The absolute number of Hib cases (reported to the national surveillance system) among children below one year of age decreased by 65%, from 55 cases in 1999-2000 to 19 cases in 2003-04. Enhanced surveillance initiated in 2003, identified human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infection and incomplete vaccination as contributing factors for Hib transmission. The total number of laboratory-confirmed cases of H. influenzae remained unchanged because non-type b disease was being increasingly reported to the surveillance system concomitant with system enhancements. Children with non-typable disease were more likely to be HIV-positive (32 of 34, 94%) than children with Hib disease (10 of 14, 71%), P = 0.051. Recent Hib isolates were more likely to be multidrug resistant (2% in 1999-2000 versus 19% in 2003-04, P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Data from a newly established national laboratory-based surveillance system showed a decrease in Hib disease burden among South African children following conjugate vaccine introduction and identified cases of non-typable disease associated with HIV infection.

OBJETIVO: Analizar las tendencias de los casos notificados de enfermedad invasiva por Haemophilus influenzae en Sudáfrica durante los cinco primeros años de utilización de la vacuna conjugada contra Haemophilus influenzae tipo b (anti-Hib) en el calendario de vacunación infantil sistemática. MÉTODOS: Usamos los datos de vigilancia obtenidos por el laboratorio nacional para identificar los casos de enfermedad invasiva por H. influenzae registrados entre julio de 1999 y junio de 2004, así como las cepas aisladas enviadas para serotipificación y análisis de la sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos. RESULTADOS: La cifra absoluta de casos de infección por Hib (notificados al sistema de vigilancia nacional) entre los niños menores de un año se redujo en un 65%, de 55 casos en 1999- 2000 a 19 casos en 2003-2004. La vigilancia mejorada iniciada en 2003 identificó la infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) y la vacunación incompleta como factores contribuyentes a la transmisión de Hib. El número total de casos de infección por H. influenzae confirmados en laboratorio se mantuvo inalterado debido a que la enfermedad de tipo no b se notificó con creciente frecuencia al sistema de vigilancia como consecuencia de la mejora del sistema. Los niños con enfermedad no tipificable tenían más probabilidades de ser VIH-positivos (32 de 34; 94%) que los niños con enfermedad por Hib (10 de 14; 71%), P = 0,051, y los aislados recientes de Hib tenían más probabilidades de ser multirresistentes (2% en 1999-2000, frente al 19% de 2003-2004, P = 0,001). CONCLUSIONES: Los datos de un nuevo sistema nacional de vigilancia basado en el laboratorio mostraron una disminución de la carga de morbilidad por Hib entre los niños sudafricanos tras la introducción de vacunas conjugadas e identificaron casos de enfermedad no tipificable asociada a la infección por VIH.

OBJECTIF: Analyser les tendances observées dans les infections invasives à Haemophilus influenzae en Afrique du Sud pendant les cinq premières années suivant l'introduction du vaccin conjugué anti-Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) dans le calendrier de vaccination systématique de l'enfant. MÉTHODES: On a utilisé les données de la surveillance nationale au laboratoire pour définir les cas d'infection invasive à H. influenzae entre juillet 1999 et juin 2004 et soumis des isolements au sérotypage et à des épreuves de sensibilité aux antimicrobiens. RÉSULTATS: Le nombre absolu de cas d'infection à Hib (notifiés au système de surveillance national) chez l'enfant de moins d'un an a diminué de 65 %, passant de 55 en 1999-2000 à 19 en 2003-2004. Le renforcement de la surveillance commencé en 2003 a permis de constater que l'infection par le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) et la vaccination incomplète constituaient des facteurs contribuant à la transmission du Hib. Le nombre total de cas d'infection à H. influenzae confirmés au laboratoire est resté inchangé, les infections n'appartenant pas au type b étant de plus en plus notifiées au système de surveillance à mesure que celui-ci devenait plus performant. Les enfants touchés par une infection à Haemophilus de type impossible à déterminer étaient plus souvent VIH-positifs (32 sur 34, 94 %) que les enfants infectés par Hib (10 sur 14, 71 %, p = 0,051). On a également observé une probabilité plus grande de multirésistance dans les isolements récents de Hib (2 % en 1999-2000 contre 19 % en 2003-2004, p = 0,001). CONCLUSION: Les données issues d'un système national de surveillance au laboratoire récemment mis en place ont fait apparaître une diminution de la charge de morbidité due à Hib chez les enfants sud-africains à la suite de l'introduction du vaccin conjugué et permis d'identifier des infections à Haemophilus dont le type était impossible à déterminer, associées à l'infection par le VIH.