RESUMO Objetivo Compreender a lacuna de tratamento em saúde mental na Região das Américas examinando a prevalência de transtornos mentais, o uso de serviços de saúde mental e a carga global de doença. Métodos Foram utilizados dados de inquéritos comunitários de transtornos mentais na Argentina, Brasil, Canadá, Chile, Colômbia, Guatemala, México, Peru e Estados Unidos. Os dados publicados na Pesquisa Mundial de Saúde Mental foram utilizados para estimar a lacuna de tratamento. Para o Canadá, Chile e Guatemala, a lacuna de tratamento foi calculada a partir de arquivos de dados. A lacuna de tratamento média, média ponderada e mediana, e a prevalência de 12 meses por gravidade e categoria de transtorno mental foram estimadas para as populações adulta, infantil-adolescente e indígena em geral. Os anos de vida ajustados por incapacidade e os anos de vida com incapacidade foram calculados a partir do estudo Carga Global de Doença. Resultados Os transtornos mentais e de uso de substâncias foram responsáveis por 10,5% da carga global de doença nas Américas. A taxa de prevalência de 12 meses de transtornos mentais graves variou de 2% a 10% entre os estudos. A lacuna de tratamento média ponderada nas Américas para transtornos moderados a graves foi de 65,7%; em América do Norte de 53,2%; em América Latina de 74,7%; em Mesoamérica de 78,7%; e na América do Sul de 73,1%. A lacuna de tratamento para transtornos mentais graves em crianças e adolescentes foi superior a 50%. Um terço da população indígena nos Estados Unidos e 80% na América Latina não recebeu tratamento. Conclusão A lacuna de tratamento para a saúde mental continua sendo uma preocupação de saúde pública. Uma alta proporção de adultos, crianças e indígenas com doença mental grave permanece sem tratamento. O resultado é uma elevada prevalência de transtornos mentais e de carga global de doença.

ABSTRACT Objective To understand the mental health treatment gap in the Region of the Americas by examining the prevalence of mental health disorders, use of mental health services, and the global burden of disease. Methods Data from community-based surveys of mental disorders in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, and the United States were utilized. The World Mental Health Survey published data were used to estimate the treatment gap. For Canada, Chile, and Guatemala, the treatment gap was calculated from data files. The mean, median, and weighted treatment gap, and the 12-month prevalence by severity and category of mental disorder were estimated for the general adult, child-adolescent, and indigenous populations. Disability-adjusted Life Years and Years Lived with Disability were calculated from the Global Burden of Disease study. Results Mental and substance use disorders accounted for 10.5% of the global burden of disease in the Americas. The 12-month prevalence rate of severe mental disorders ranged from 2% – 10% across studies. The weighted mean treatment gap in the Americas for moderate to severe disorders was 65.7%; North America, 53.2%; Latin America, 74.7%; Mesoamerica, 78.7%; and South America, 73.1%. The treatment gap for severe mental disorders in children and adolescents was over 50%. One-third of the indigenous population in the United States and 80% in Latin America had not received treatment. Conclusion The treatment gap for mental health remains a public health concern. A high proportion of adults, children, and indigenous individuals with serious mental illness remains untreated. The result is an elevated prevalence of mental disorders and global burden of disease.

RESUMEN Objetivo Comprender la brecha en el tratamiento de la salud mental en la Región de las Américas mediante la revisión de la prevalencia de los trastornos de salud mental, el uso de los servicios de salud mental y la carga mundial de enfermedad. Métodos Se utilizaron datos de encuestas comunitarias de trastornos mentales de Argentina, Brasil, Canadá, Chile, Colombia, Estados Unidos, Guatemala, México y Perú. Se emplearon los datos publicados de la Encuesta Mundial de Salud Mental para estimar la brecha de tratamiento. Para Canadá, Chile y Guatemala, la brecha de tratamiento se calculó a partir de los archivos de datos. Se estimaron la brecha de tratamiento media, media ponderada, y mediana, y la prevalencia de 12 meses por gravedad y categoría de trastorno mental para las poblaciones generales de adultos, niños y adolescentes, e indígenas. Se calcularon los años de vida ajustados por discapacidad y los años vividos con discapacidad a partir del estudio Carga Global de Enfermedad. Resultados Los trastornos mentales y por consumo de sustancias representaron el 10,5% de la carga mundial de enfermedad en las Américas. La tasa de prevalencia de 12 meses de los trastornos mentales severos varió del 2% al 10% en los estudios. La brecha de tratamiento media ponderada en las Américas para los trastornos moderados a graves fue del 65,7%; en América del Norte de 53,2%; en América Latina de 74,7%; en Mesoamérica de 78,7%; y en América del Sur de 73,1%. La brecha de tratamiento para los trastornos mentales graves en niños y adolescentes fue superior al 50%. Un tercio de la población indígena en los Estados Unidos y el 80% en América Latina no recibieron tratamiento. Conclusión La brecha de tratamiento para la salud mental sigue siendo un problema de salud pública. Una gran proporción de adultos, niños y personas indígenas con enfermedades mentales graves continúan sin tratamiento. El resultado implica una prevalencia elevada de trastornos mentales y de la carga mundial de enfermedad.

Background: Suicidal behavior ranges from ideation to consummation of suicide. In Chile, rates of suicide increased from 4.8 to 12.7/100,000 in the period 1992-2009. Aim: To evaluate the prevalence of suicidal behavior and its relationship with sociodemographic factors and psychiatric diseases. Material and Methods: The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), was applied to a representative sample of 2,978 Chilean participants. The prevalence of four suicidal behaviors (thinking about or wishing death, suicide ideation and suicide attempts) and of psychiatric diseases according to the revised third version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM III-R), was calculated. Results: The lifetime prevalence of suicidal conception was 14.3% and the suicide attempt 7.7%, the latest associated with sex, age, school years, smoking habits, being married or having a relationship, depressive disorders, dysthymia, and alcohol, drug and tobacco dependence. Conclusions: Rates founded exceed international prevalence data and extrapolated to current rates of completed suicide, higher levels of suicidal behavior should be expected. Considering the associated disorders we can infer that it is essential a correct diagnosis and treatment of mood disorders and substance consumption to any other specific interventions.

Background and Objectives: Numerous studies of disasters have used measures of non-specific distress as outcome measures. The utility of these measures as predictive of the long-term outcome of disasters has remained unclear, in particular the relationship with PTSD. This study examines whether demoralization is predictive and a useful concept to examine the long-term outcome of disaster related PTSD. Methods: The 1998 Hurricane Mitch that impacted Honduras was examined two-months (n = 800) and two-years following the disaster in a longitudinal community-based sample of 604 adults. Respondents were selected from a stratified sample in Tegucigalpa based on exposure and social economic status. PTSD diagnosed using the CIDI module at both periods of time. Demoralization was measured using the PERI-D at 2-months post-disaster. Results: The PERI-D, increased demoralization, was significantly associated with PTSD at two-month and two-years. In addition, increased demoralization was associated with increased risk of PTSD chronicity. Decreased demoralization was associated with PTSD remission. New onset PTSD was associated increased demoralization; however, the finding was not appreciated after controlling for potential confounders. Conclusions: Demoralization can be measured using a simple screening questionnaire that may be a useful in identifying individuals who may be at increased risk for PTSD in the short-term, as well as in the long-term following a disaster.

Background: Psychiatric disorders that appear during childhood or adolescence should be a public health priority. Aim: To report the results of a national representative survey in the Latin American region examinig the prevalence of DSM-IV psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents. Material and Methods: Subjects aged 4 to 18 years were selected using a stratified multistage design. The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (DISC-IV) was used to obtain 12-month DSM-IV diagnoses, and was supplemented with questionnaires examining family riskfactors, socioeconomic status and service use. Results: A sample of1558 children and adolescents (51% males) was evaluated. Fifty three percent of the sample were children aged 4 to 11 years and the rest were adolescents aged 12 to 18 years. The prevalence rate for any psychiatric disorder without impairment was 38.3% (33.5% for boys and 43.3% for girls). The prevalence rate was higher among children as compared to adolescents (42.9% and 33.2%, respectively). A third of participants receiving a diagnosis sought some form of assistance. Nearly a quarter of those using services, did not have a psychiatric diagnosis in the past year. Comorbidity was found in 27% of those with a disorder, but only 7% had three or more diagnoses. Conclusions: The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Chile is high among children and adolescents. This study highlights the increasing need to re-evaluate mental health services provided to children and adolescents in our country.

OBJECTIVE: To outline mental health service accessibility, estimate the treatment gap and describe service utilization for people with schizophrenic disorders in 50 low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: The World Health Organization Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems was used to assess the accessibility of mental health services for schizophrenic disorders and their utilization. The treatment gap measurement was based on the number of cases treated per 100 000 persons with schizophrenic disorders, and it was compared with subregional estimates based on the Global burden of disease 2004 update report. Multivariate analysis using backward step-wise regression was performed to assess predictors of accessibility, treatment gap and service utilization. FINDINGS: The median annual rate of treatment for schizophrenic disorders in mental health services was 128 cases per 100 000 population. The median treatment gap was 69% and was higher in participating low-income countries (89%) than in lower-middle-income and upper-middle-income countries (69% and 63%, respectively). Of the people with schizophrenic disorders, 80% were treated in outpatient facilities. The availability of psychiatrists and nurses in mental health facilities was found to be a significant predictor of service accessibility and treatment gap. CONCLUSION: The treatment gap for schizophrenic disorders in the 50 low- and middle-income countries in this study is disconcertingly large and outpatient facilities bear the major burden of care. The significant predictors found suggest an avenue for improving care in these countries.

OBJETIVO: Esbozar la accesibilidad a los servicios de salud mental, evaluar la desigualdad en el tratamiento y describir la utilización de servicios para personas con trastornos esquizofrénicos en 50 países de ingresos bajos y medios. MÉTODOS: Se empleó el Instrumento de Evaluación para Sistemas de Salud Mental de la Organización Mundial de la Salud con el fin de valorar la accesibilidad a los servicios de salud mental para trastornos esquizofrénicos y su utilización. La medición de la desigualdad en el tratamiento se basó en el número de casos tratados por cada 100 000 personas con trastornos esquizofrénicos y se comparó con las estimaciones subregionales basadas en el informe de actualización Global burden of disease 2004. Se realizó un análisis multivariable empleando la eliminación regresiva para evaluar los predictores de accesibilidad, la desigualdad en el tratamiento y la utilización de servicios. RESULTADOS: La tasa media anual de tratamiento de trastornos esquizofrénicos en los servicios de salud mental fue de 128 casos por cada 100 000 habitantes. La desigualdad media en el tratamiento fue del 69% y resultó superior en los países participantes de ingresos bajos (89%) que en los países de ingresos medios-bajos y en los países de ingresos medios-altos (69% y 63%, respectivamente). El 80% de las personas con trastornos esquizofrénicos recibieron tratamiento en instalaciones ambulatorias. La disponibilidad de psiquiatras y enfermeros en las instalaciones de salud mental se determinó como un predictor significativo de la accesibilidad a los servicios y de la desigualdad en el tratamiento. CONCLUSIÓN: La desigualdad en el tratamiento para trastornos esquizofrénicos en los 50 países de ingresos bajos y medios incluidos en este estudio es desconcertantemente elevada y las instalaciones ambulatorias asumen la principal carga del cuidado. Los predictores significativos hallados sugieren una posibilidad de mejora del cuidado en estos países.

OBJECTIF: Passer en revue l'accessibilité aux services de santé mentale, estimer l'écart de traitement et décrire l'utilisation du service des personnes souffrant de troubles schizophréniques dans 50 pays à revenu faible et moyen. MÉTHODES: L'instrument d'évaluation des systèmes de santé mentale de l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé a été utilisé pour étudier l'accessibilité et l'utilisation des services de santé mentale pour les troubles schizophréniques. La mesure de l'écart de traitement reposait sur le nombre de cas traités pour 100 000 personnes présentant des troubles schizophréniques, et elle a été comparée aux estimations sous-régionales selon le rapport mis à jour Global burden of disease 2004 (Étude sur la charge mondiale de morbidité 2004). Une analyse multivariée utilisant la régression pas à pas descendante a été effectuée afin d'évaluer les prédicteurs d'accessibilité, l'écart de traitement et l'utilisation du service. RÉSULTATS: Le taux annuel médian de traitement des troubles schizophréniques dans les services de santé mentale était de 128 cas pour 100 000 habitants. L'écart de traitement médian était de 69%. Il était plus élevé dans les pays à revenu faible participant à l'étude (89%) que dans les pays à revenu moyen de la tranche inférieure et dans les pays à revenu moyen de la tranche supérieure (69% et 63%, respectivement). 80% des personnes souffrant de troubles schizophréniques ont été traitées dans des services de consultation externe. La disponibilité de psychiatres et d'infirmières dans les établissements de santé mentale était un prédicteur de l'accessibilité du service et de l'écart de traitement. CONCLUSION: Dans cette étude, l'écart de traitement des troubles schizophréniques dans les pays à revenu faible et moyen est étonnamment important, et les services de consultation externe assurent la plus grande partie des soins. Les prédicteurs significatifs identifiés suggèrent une direction à suivre pour améliorer les soins dans ces pays.

In the last decade, our understanding of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has progressed from studies of war veterans and specific disaster victims to studies that examine the epidemiology of PTSD in the United States (USA) population. Epidemiologic data on PTSD in developing countries is an understudied area with the majority of studies were developed in the USA and other developed countries. Of the few epidemiological surveys undertaken in other countries, most of them have focused its interest on the prevalence rates of PTSD and its risk factors for following specific traumatic events. Besides increasing the international normative and descriptive data base on PTSD, an examination of prevalence rates and risk factors for PTSD in a socio-political and cultural context (that is markedly different to established market economies) can deepen our understanding of the phenomenology and determinants of PTSD. Although many psychiatric diagnoses can be related with previous traumatic experiences, PTSD has been identified as a disorder that requires a previous traumatic exposure for its diagnosis. A growing literature strongly suggests that early exposure to traumatic events disrupts crucial normal stages of childhood development and predisposes children to subsequent psychiatric sequelae. A series of epidemiological studies has demonstrated that childhood sexual abuse is associated with a range of psychiatric disorders in adulthood that includes mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders, even after adjusting for possible confounds, such as family factors and parental psychopathological disorders or other childhood adversities. There is little evidence of diagnostic specificity of childhood sexual abuse, although a consistent finding has been that alcohol and drug disorders are more strongly related to childhood sexual abuse than other psychiatric disorders. Other forms of childhood traumas have been less well studied. This article reviews the findings of an epidemiological study that took place in Chile and examined prevalence rates of PTSD, traumatic events most often associated with PTSD, comorbidity of PTSD with other lifetime psychiatric disorders, gender differences in PTSD as well as trauma exposure in a representative sample of Chileans. This article also reported a comparison of prevalence rates of various psychiatric disorders among persons who reported the first trauma during their childhood, those who reported the first trauma during their adulthood, and those with no trauma history. The study was based on a household-stratified sample of people defined by the health service system to be adults (aged 15 years and older). The study was designed to represent the population of Chile. This analysis is limited to three geographically distinct provinces, chosen as being representative of the distribution of much of the population. The interviews were administered to a representative sample of 2390 persons aged 15 to over 64 years. The measures used were the DSM-III-R PTSD and antisocial personality disorder modules from the Diagnostic Interview Schedule and modules for a range of DSM-III-R diagnoses from the Composite International Diagnostic. Traumatic events were categorized into one of 11 categories: military combat, rape, physical assault, seeing someone hurt or killed, disaster, threat, narrow escape, sudden injury/ accident, news of a sudden death or accident, other event (e.g. kidnapping, torture), or other experience. The translation into Spanish was conducted using the protocol outlined by the World Health Organization. The interviewers were all university students in their senior year studying social sciences. Taylor series linearization method was used to estimate the standard errors due to the sample design and the need for weighting. The analysis was conducted using procedures without replacement for non-respondents. The region, province, comuna, and district selected were used as the defined strata. Logistic regression with the corresponding 95% confidence interval was used to examine associations among PTSD, demographic risk factors, and trauma type. To examine whether the association between PTSD and gender could be explained by other risk factors, multivariate logistic regression analyses were also conducted. The first analysis found that the lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 4.4% (2.5% for men and 6.2% for women). Among the traumatic events, rape was most strongly associated with PTSD diagnosis. Among those exposed to traumas, women were significantly more likely to develop PTSD than men, after controlling for assaultive violence. The second analysis revealed that exposure to a lifetime trauma was associated with a higher probability of psychiatric morbidity in comparison with no trauma exposure. Traumas with childhood onset were significantly related to lifetime panic disorder, independent of number of lifetime traumas and demographic differences. This revealed that women had more probabilities than men of developing PTSD once they are exposed to trauma, independent of previous traumas, experiences of sexual assault, other violent experiences or level of education. Some authors have proposed that women have a higher vulnerability than men to develop PTSD and that there are sex differences in brain morphology, in the social interpretation of trauma, or/and in the peritraumatic dissociative experience. Although many theories have been proposed to explain this gender difference in PTSD, more research is needed to evaluate them empirically. This study highlights the importance of investigating the prevalence of PTSD, the patterns of comorbidity of PTSD, as well as gender differences of PTSD in non-English speaking countries. Although Chile has a different historical and socio-cultural context with respect to other countries in which the epidemiology of PTSD has been examined, in general, this study achieved similar results as those found in other studies. The results showed that PTSD is not an uncommon psychiatric illness, it is associated with a high degree of psychiatric comorbidity, it is more likely to predate other psychiatric disorders. Also, the results showed that men are more likely to be exposed to traumas than women, women are more likely than men to develop PTSD, and that PTSD is associated with relatively high treatment utilization. However, compared to another country in Latin America, such as Mexico, Chile has a lower prevalence of PTSD and trauma exposure, which may due to socio-economic factors, such as less inequity between the wealthy and the poor and less violence, crime, and poverty in Chile than Mexico. These studies also suggest that traumatic events that occur in childhood are related to specific disorders rather than those that occurred later in life. Individuals with childhood interpersonal trauma exposure are more likely to suffer from lifetime panic disorder, agoraphobia or PTSD compared to those who experience interpersonal trauma as an adult. However, research should examine the specificity of these disorders in relation to various types of childhood traumas. Limitations of the current study include the use of lay interviewers who, despite acceptable levels of reliability and validity, may be less accurate than clinicians as interviewers. Also the retrospective recall of lifetime disorders is likely to be less accurate than a more recent time frame. The sample used in this study does not show nation wide perspective, because the Southern portion of the country which includes much of the indigenous population was excluded. This study, like most epidemiological studies, did not use an-depth or validated index of trauma, which may have diluted findings. Since this study was cross-sectional, a direct cause-effect relationship cannot be assumed between trauma exposure and subsequent disorders.

Durante la década de 1990 en los Estados Unidos (EU), el conocimiento sobre el trastorno de estrés post-traumático (TEPT) evolucionó de estudios específicos en un principio, sobre veteranos de guerra y sobre víctimas de desastres, a estudios epidemiológicos más tarde, sin embargo, la epidemiología del TEPT en países en desarrollo ha sido un área poco estudiada hasta ahora. Los expertos en el área de trauma han propuesto que los sucesos traumáticos que ocurren en la niñez son más perjudiciales para la salud mental que aquellos que ocurren más tarde en la vida. Este trabajo revisa los resultados de un estudio epidemiológico llevado a cabo en Chile. Específicamente, se revisan los resultados sobre las tasas de prevalencia del TEPT, traumas asociados más frecuentemente con él, así como la comorbilidad de este trastorno con otros trastornos psiquiátricos a lo largo de la vida. Igualmente se analizaron las diferencias del TEPT en cada sexo, así como la exposición a traumas en una muestra representativa de chilenos. Además se comparó la prevalencia de trastornos psiquiátricos en personas que sufrieron su primer trauma durante la niñez, durante la edad adulta, o que no reportaron traumas durante su vida. En estos estudios epidemiológicos se usaron módulos del TEPT y trastorno de personalidad antisocial (TPA) de la entrevista diagnóstica siguiendo los criterios del DSM-III-R (DIS-III-R). Para evaluar el resto de los trastornos psiquiátricos se usó la Entrevista Diagnóstica Internacional Compuesta (CIDI). Estos instrumentos fueron administrados en tres ciudades chilenas a 2390 personas mayores de 15 años. Para estimar los errores estándares (EE) debido al diseño de la muestra y a la necesidad de ajuste se usó el método Taylor de linearización seriada. También se usó un análisis de regresión logística para examinar la relación entre el TEPT, los factores demográficos de riesgo y el tipo de trauma. Además se utilizó la regresión logística multivariada para evaluar si la relación entre el TEPT y el sexo pudiera ser explicada por medio de otros factores de riesgo, así como para calcular las tasas y la oportunidad relativa (razón de productos cruzados) de trastornos psiquiátricos a lo largo de la vida. El primer análisis arrojó que la prevalencia de TEPT a lo largo de la vida fue de 4.4% (2.5% para hombres y 6.2% para mujeres). De los hechos traumáticos reportados, la violación sexual tuvo una correlación más alta con el TEPT que los demás hechos traumáticos. Las mujeres tuvieron más probabilidades de experimentar TEPT que los hombres, después de controlar la variable asalto violento. El segundo análisis evidenció que los que habían sufrido traumas a lo largo de la vida tuvieron mayor probabilidad de tener un trastorno psiquiátrico en comparación con aquellos que no reportaron traumas. También se encontró que los que sufrieron su primer trauma durante la infancia tuvieron más probabilidad de desarrollar trastornos de pánico a lo largo de la vida que aquellos que sufrieron su primer trauma en la edad adulta, independientemente del número de traumas que sufrieron y de las diferencias demográficas. Aunque Chile tiene un contexto histórico-cultural y una economía diferente a otros países en los que se ha estudiado anteriormente la epidemiología del TEPT, el presente estudio reflejó tendencias similares a las reportadas en estudios previos. Los hallazgos expuestos enfatizan la importancia de investigar la prevalencia del TEPT, los patrones de comorbilidad del TEPT y las diferencias de sexo en la prevalencia del TEPT en diferentes países. También estos resultados sugieren que los sucesos traumáticos en la infancia (y no en la adultez) pueden estar relacionados con la ocurrencia de trastornos psiquiátricos específicos.

Chile has one of the highest disease burdens caused by neuropsychiatric illnesses in the world, according to WHO, reaching to 31%- Major depression and alcohol use disorders are ranked first and second in attributed disability among adults. Nearly one-third of the population has had a psychiatric disorder in their lifetime, and 22.2% in the past year. Anxierty disorders are the most prevalent conditions, followed by major depression and alcohol abuse. Currently, mental health accounts for 2.3%) of the health care budget, which is less than some neighboring countries. The availability of 1.3 psychiatric beds per 10,000 inhabitants, is less than the mean of lower-income countries. Moreover, 81% are for chronic rather than acute care. Chile has 4.0 psychiatrist per 100,000 inhabitants, which is lower than other countries in Latin America. Only 38.5% of those patients with a psychiatric diagnosis receive any kind of mental health care, whether from a specialist or primary care. There is a perception among lay persons, that psychiatric treatments lack efficacy, despite evidence demonstrating the contrary. Not addressing the treament gap in mental health has serious public health implications

Introducción: La forma como se conducen las investigaciones en epidemiología psiquiátrica en América Latina ha impedido que los resultados sean ampliamente conocidos; además, se han realizado pocos estudios comparativos. Objetivo: Comparar y analizar la prevalencia de trastornos psiquiátricos en Latinoamérica. Metodología: Revisión y comparación de estudios latinoamericanos. Resultados: Estudios de tercera generación llevados a cabo sobre muestras de población general en América Latina destacan tasas semejantes de depresión mayor, exceptuando un estudio en Colombia. Se observan mayores tasas de uso de alcohol o de trastornos asociados en Colombia y en un estudio en Lima. Tres estudios realizados en Estados Unidos con hispanos muestran consistentemente tasas mayores de problemas relacionados con el alcohol que los encontrados en todos los estudios realizados en Suramérica. La tasa de trastornos ansiosos en Chile fue más alta que la de depresión mayor, lo cual es replicado en otros estudios de la subregión sur. La baja tasa de comorbilidad en el estudio chileno se replica en Ciudad de México. Las tasas de uso de servicios de Estados Unidos, México y Chile no parecen diferir significativamente. Conclusiones: Se requieren medidas objetivas de discapacidad y análisis más precisos acerca de las necesidades de uso de servicios, comorbilidad médica y prevalencia de tasas de enfermedad mental grave.

Introduction: The way in which research on psychiatric epidemiology has been conducted in Latin America has impaired results from being widely known; additionally, few comparative studies have been carried out. Objective: To compare and analyze the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Latin America. Methods: Review and comparison of Latin- American studies. Results: Third generation studies carried out within samples of the general population in Latin America note similar rates of mayor depression, with the exception of a study in Colombia. Higher rates of alcohol use or related disorders were observed in Colombia and in a study in Lima. Three studies conducted in the United States with hispanics consistently show higher rates of alcohol-related problems than those found in all the studies done in South America. The rate of anxiety disorders in Chile was found to be higher than that of mayor depression, a finding that is replicated in other south sub-region studies. the low rate of comorbidity in the chilean study is replicated in Mexico city. the rates of use of services in the united states, Mexico and Chile do no seem to differ significantly. Conclusions: Objective incapacity measurements and more precise analysis on the needs of use of services, medical comorbidity and prevalence of rates on serious mental illness are required.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the patterns in the use of general health services and specialized health services among adults with mental health problems in Chile, as well as those persons' level of satisfaction with the services. The overall objective was to optimize the use of the limited resources available for mental health care in the countries of the Americas, especially Chile. METHODS: The diagnoses and the patterns of use of mental health services were obtained from the Chilean Study of Psychiatric Prevalence (Estudio Chileno de Prevalencia Psiquiátrica). That representative research on the adult population of Chile was based on a stratified random sample of 2 987 people 15 years old and older, done over the period of 1992 to 1999. The psychiatric diagnoses were obtained using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). The interviewees were also asked about their use of general health care services and of mental health services in the preceding six months, as well as any barriers to accessing the services. RESULTS: More than 44% of the interviewees had had contact with some type of health service during the six months prior to the study, but only 5.6% received specialized care. Those who presented with a diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder or of panic disorder consulted more frequently, but not in specialized centers. Consumption of substances such as alcohol and drugs as well as antisocial personality disorder were associated with a low level of consultation. When asked about sources of assistance for mental health problems, the majority of the interviewees mentioned only the formal health care system. More than 75% of the interviewees said that they were satisfied or very satisfied with the care that they had received. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm the existence of a wide gap between the need for care and the treatment that is actually received. The informal and folkloric alternative resources (priests, family members, healers, herbalists, etc.) were used less frequently than is generally believed to be true. The indirect barriers of access to services-linked to a lack of knowledge and to stigma-were more frequent than were the direct barriers. A sizable number of people who did not have a positive diagnosis on the CIDI utilized mental health services.

OBJETIVO: Describir el patrón de uso de servicios generales y especializados entre los adultos con problemas de salud mental, así como su nivel de satisfacción con dichos servicios, con la finalidad de contribuir a optimizar los escasos recursos disponibles en la Región para la atención de la salud mental, particularmente en lo que corresponde a Chile. MÉTODO: Los diagnósticos y los patrones de uso de los servicios de salud mental se obtuvieron del Estudio Chileno de Prevalencia Psiquiátrica (ECPP), una investigación representativa de la población adulta del país, basada en una muestra aleatoria estratificada de 2 987 personas de 15 años y más, que abarcó el período de 1992 a 1999. Los diagnósticos psiquiátricos se obtuvieron por medio del instrumento de entrevista denominado Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Asimismo, se preguntó a los entrevistados acerca del uso de servicios generales y de salud mental en los seis meses precedentes y sobre las dificultades que encontraron para acceder a ellos. RESULTADOS: Más de 44% de los entrevistados tuvieron contacto con algún tipo de servicio de salud durante los 6 meses previos al estudio, pero solo 5,6% recibieron atención especializada. Quienes presentan los diagnósticos de trastorno obsesivo y de pánico consultan con mayor frecuencia, pero no en centros especializados. El consumo de sustancias tóxicas y la personalidad antisocial se relacionaron con un bajo nivel de consulta. El sistema formal de salud es la opción que más se menciona como recurso de ayuda. Más de 75% refieren satisfacción o gran satisfacción con la atención recibida. CONCLUSIONES: Se confirma la existencia de una amplia brecha entre las necesidades de atención y el tratamiento realmente recibido. Los recursos alternativos informales y folclóricos (sacerdote, familiares, curanderos, hierbateros [yerberos], etc.) se utilizan con una frecuencia menor de la esperada. Las barreras indirectas de acceso a los servicios resultan claramente más frecuentes y se vinculan con desconocimiento y estigma. Un número importante de personas sin diagnóstico positivo en la entrevista CIDI hace uso de los servicios de salud mental.

OBJECTIVE: The growing burden of mental disorders in Latin America and the Caribbean has become too large to ignore. There is a need to know more about the prevalence of mental disorders and the gap between the number of individuals with psychiatric disorders and the number of those persons who remain untreated even though effective treatments exist. Having that knowledge would make it possible to improve advocacy, adopt better policies, formulate innovative intervention programs, and apportion resources commensurate with needs. METHODS: Data were extracted from community-based psychiatric epidemiological studies published in Latin America and the Caribbean from 1980 through 2004 that used structured diagnostic instruments and provided prevalence rates. Estimates of the crude rates in Latin America and the Caribbean for the various disorders were determined by calculating the mean and median rates across the studies, by gender. In addition, data on service utilization were reviewed in order to calculate the treatment gap for specific disorders. RESULTS: Nonaffective psychosis (including schizophrenia) had an estimated mean one-year prevalence rate of 1.0%; major depression, 4.9%; and alcohol use abuse or dependence, 5.7%. Over one-third of individuals with nonaffective psychosis, over half of those with an anxiety disorder, and some three-fourths of those with alcohol use abuse or dependence did not receive mental health care from either specialized or general health services. CONCLUSIONS: The current treatment gap in mental health care in Latin America and the Caribbean remains wide. Further, current data likely greatly underestimate the number of untreated individuals. The epidemiological transition and changes in the population structure will further widen the treatment gap in Latin America and the Caribbean unless mental health policies are formulated or updated and programs and services are expanded.

OBJETIVO: La creciente carga de trastornos mentales que afecta a las poblaciones de América Latina y el Caribe es demasiado grande para hacer caso omiso de ella. Por lo tanto, es una necesidad impostergable conocer la prevalencia de los trastornos mentales y la brecha de tratamiento, que está dada por la diferencia entre las tasas de prevalencia verdadera y las de las personas que han sido tratadas, que en algunos casos es grande pese a la existencia de tratamientos eficaces. Si se dispone de mayor informacion, se hace más factible 1) abogar mejor por los intereses de las personas que necesitan atención, 2) adoptar políticas más eficaces, 3) formular programas de intervención innovadores y 4) adjudicar recursos en conformidad con las necesidades observadas. MÉTODOS: Los datos se obtuvieron de estudios comunitarios publicados en América Latina y el Caribe entre 1980 y 2004. En esas investigaciones epidemiológicas se usaron instrumentos diagnósticos estructurados y se estimaron tasas de prevalencia. Las tasas brutas de diversos trastornos psiquiátricos en América Latina y el Caribe se estimaron a partir de las tasas media y mediana extraídas de los estudios, desglosadas por sexo. También se extrajeron los datos correspondientes al uso de servicios de salud mental para poder calcular la brecha en el tratamiento según trastornos específicos. RESULTADOS: Las psicosis no afectivas (entre ellas la esquizofrenia) tuvieron una prevalencia media estimada durante el año precedente de 1,0%; la depresión mayor, de 4,9%; y el abuso o la dependencia del alcohol, de 5,7%. Más de la tercera parte de las personas afectadas por psicosis no afectivas, más de la mitad de las afectadas por trastornos de ansiedad, y cerca de tres cuartas partes de las que abusaban o dependían del alcohol no habían recibido tratamiento psiquiátrico alguno, sea en un servicio especializado o en uno de tipo general. CONCLUSIONES: La actual brecha en el tratamiento de los trastornos mentales en América Latina y el Caribe sigue siendo abrumadora. Además, las tasas actuales probablemente subestiman el número de personas sin atención. La transición epidemiológica y los cambios en la composición poblacional acentuarán aun más la brecha en la atención en América Latina y el Caribe, a no ser que se formulen nuevas políticas de salud mental o que se actualicen las existentes, procurando incluir en ellas la extensión de los programas y servicios.

BACKGROUND: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other psychopathological outcomes have not been sufficiently studied in community-based samples in Latin America. This study explored various psychopathological reactions and their respective risk factors two months after Hurricane Mitch struck Honduras in October 1998. METHODS: In the Honduran capital of Tegucigalpa, 800 respondents age 15 and older were selected from residential areas of high, middle, or low socioeconomic status that had suffered either high or low impact from the devastating effects of the hurricane. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview was used to diagnose PTSD. Depression, alcohol misuse, and grief reaction were examined using screening instruments, and the Self-Reporting Questionnaire was used to measure demoralization. The Impact of Event Scale was administered to ascertain the severity of the posttraumatic reaction. RESULTS: PTSD was present in 10.6% of the sample. Respondents from the high-impact residential areas were more distressed, had higher scores on the grief inventory, and showed greater severity in PTSD symptoms. The respondents from the high-impact residential areas also had higher prevalence rates of major depression, alcoholism, and prior emotional problems. The best explanatory model for the risk of developing PTSD included the degree of exposure based on reported traumatic events, and associated increased demoralization. Among the persons with PTSD, its severity was predicted by being female and by the degree of exposure to hurricane-related traumatic events. CONCLUSIONS: Out of a total population of 3.3 million adults (age 15 and older) in Honduras, it is estimated that over 492 000 of them may have developed PTSD due to Hurricane Mitch. Adequate health disaster preparedness and response requires full acknowledgement of the multiple psychological effects that victims experience.

OBJETIVOS: En América Latina no se han estudiado suficientemente los trastornos por estrés postraumático (TSP) y otras afecciones piscopatológicas mediante muestras basadas en la comunidad. El presente estudio explora varias reacciones psicopatológicas y sus respectivos factores de riesgo dos meses después de que el huracán Mitch azotó Honduras en octubre de 1998. MÉTODOS: En Tegucigalpa, capital de Honduras, se seleccionó a 800 personas de 15 años de edad o más que vivían en áreas residenciales consideradas de estatus socioeconómico alto, medio o bajo y que habían sufrido los devastadores efectos del huracán en mayor o en menor medida. Para diagnosticar los casos de TSP se utilizó la Entrevista Diagnóstica Internacional Compuesta. La depresión, el abuso de alcohol y la reacción de dolor se evaluaron mediante encuestas de tamizaje, mientras que para la desmoralización se empleó el Cuestionario de Síntomas. Se aplicó la Escala de Impacto de Eventos para establecer la gravedad de la reacción postraumática. RESULTADOS: Se encontró TSP en 10,6% de la muestra. Los encuestados de las áreas residenciales más afectadas estaban más angustiados, tuvieron una mayor puntuación en la evaluación de sufrimiento, y presentaron síntomas de TSP de mayor gravedad. También presentaron mayores tasas de prevalencia de depresión mayor, alcoholismo y problemas emocionales previos. El mejor modelo explicativo del riesgo de sufrir TSP tomó en cuenta el grado de exposición según los eventos traumáticos informados y el incremento de la desmoralización asociada con ellos. Entre las personas con TSP, los factores pronóstico de la gravedad de los trastornos fueron el pertenecer al sexo femenino y el grado de exposición a los eventos traumáticos relacionados con el huracán. CONCLUSIONES: Se calcula que del total de 3,3 millones de adultos (de 15 años de edad o más) habitantes de Honduras, más de 492 000 han sufrido TSP debido al huracán Mitch. Para contar con una adecuada preparación sanitaria y ofrecer una apropiada respuesta ante los desastres es necesario reconocer en profundidad los múltiples efectos psicológicos que experimentan las víctimas.

Mental disorders are highly prevalent and cause considerable suffering and disease burden. To compound this public health problem, many individuals with psychiatric disorders remain untreated although effective treatments exist. We examine the extent of this treatment gap. We reviewed community-based psychiatric epidemiology studies that used standardized diagnostic instruments and included data on the percentage of individuals receiving care for schizophrenia and other non-affective psychotic disorders, major depression, dysthymia, bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and alcohol abuse or dependence. The median rates of untreated cases of these disorders were calculated across the studies. Examples of the estimation of the treatment gap for WHO regions are also presented. Thirty-seven studies had information on service utilization. The median treatment gap for schizophrenia, including other non-affective psychosis, was 32.2%. For other disorders the gap was: depression, 56.3%; dysthymia, 56.0%; bipolar disorder, 50.2%; panic disorder, 55.9%; GAD, 57.5%; and OCD, 57.3%. Alcohol abuse and dependence had the widest treatment gap at 78.1%. The treatment gap for mental disorders is universally large, though it varies across regions. It is likely that the gap reported here is an underestimate due to the unavailability of community-based data from developing countries where services are scarcer. To address this major public health challenge, WHO has adopted in 2002 a global action programme that has been endorsed by the Member States.

Los trastornos mentales, cuya prevalencia es muy alta, son una causa destacada de sufrimiento y morbilidad. Este problema de salud pública se ve agravado por el hecho de que muchos individuos aquejados de trastornos psiquiátricos no reciben tratamiento alguno pese a que existen intervenciones eficaces. Hemos analizado la magnitud de esa brecha terapéutica, para lo cual se han examinado estudios comunitarios de epidemiología psiquiátrica que habían usado instrumentos diagnósticos normalizados e incluían datos sobre el porcentaje de individuos que recibían atención por padecer esquizofrenia y otros trastornos psicóticos no afectivos, depresión grave, distimia, trastorno bipolar, trastorno de ansiedad generalizado, trastorno de pánico, trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo (TOC) y abuso o dependencia del alcohol. Se calcularon las tasas medianas de casos sin tratar de esos trastornos en el conjunto de todos los estudios. Se presentan asimismo ejemplos de estimaciones de la brecha terapéutica para las Regiones de la OMS. En 37 estudios se facilitaba información sobre la utilización de los servicios. La brecha terapéutica mediana para la esquizofrenia, incluidas otras psicosis no afectivas, fue del 32,2%. Las brechas medidas para los otros trastornos fueron las siguientes: depresión, 56,3%; distimia, 56,0%; trastorno bipolar, 50,2%; trastorno de pánico, 55,9%; ansiedad generalizada, 57,5%, y TOC, 57,3%. La brecha más importante fue la correspondiente al abuso y la dependencia del alcohol, 78,1%. La brecha terapéutica de los trastornos mentales es muy amplia en general, aunque varía entre las regiones. Es probable que los valores aquí presentados subestimen la realidad, debido a la falta de datos comunitarios de los países en desarrollo donde más escasean los servicios. Para afrontar este importante reto de salud pública, la OMS ha adoptado en 2002 un programa mundial de acción que ha sido respaldado por los Estados Miembros.

Les troubles mentaux ont une prévalence élevée et représentent une charge considérable en termes de souffrance et de maladie. De plus, de nombreuses personnes atteintes de troubles psychiques restent sans traitement alors qu'il en existe d'efficaces. Dans le présent article, nous examinons l'étendue de ce défaut de traitement. Nous avons effectué une revue des études épidémiologiques psychiatriques en population utilisant des outils de diagnostic standard et comportant des données sur le pourcentage de sujets traités pour schizophrénie et autres troubles psychotiques non affectifs, dépression majeure, dysthymie, trouble bipolaire, anxiété généralisée, trouble panique, troubles obsessionnels-compulsifs (TOC) et abus d'alcool ou dépendance alcoolique. Les taux médians d'absence de traitement de ces affections ont été calculés pour l'ensemble de ces études. L'article présente également des exemples d'estimations du défaut de traitement dans les Régions OMS. Le taux médian de défaut de traitement pour la schizophrénie, y compris les autres psychoses non affectives, était de 32,2 %. Pour les autres affections il était de : dépression 56,3 %, dysthymie 56,0 %, trouble bipolaire 50,2 %, trouble panique 55,9 %, anxiété généralisée 57,5 % et TOC 57,3 %. Il était maximal pour l'abus d'alcool et la dépendance alcoolique avec 78,1 %. Le taux de défaut de traitement des troubles mentaux est élevé partout, même s'il varie d'une région à l'autre. Il est probable que les taux rapportés ici sont en-deçà de la réalité, du fait de l'absence de données concernant les pays en développement, où les services de santé mentale sont plus rares. Pour répondre à cet important problème de santé publique, l'OMS a adopté en 2002 un programme mondial d'action, qui a été approuvé par les Etats Membres.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar os resultados da aplicação de programa de treinamento da Organização Mundial de Saúde, voltado para diagnóstico e tratamento da depressão, dirigido a médicos clínicos gerais. MÉTODOS: Dezessete clínicos e 1.224 pacientes da cidade de Campinas, SP, participaram do estudo. Um mês antes e um após o treinamento, foram avaliados o conhecimento dos médicos, suas atitudes e o atendimento prestado aos pacientes; esses, por sua vez, completaram escalas de auto-avaliação de sintomas depressivos: Zung e um "checklist" para depressão maior do manual para diagnóstico e estatística em saúde mental (DSM-IV/CID-10). A mudança de conhecimento e atitude dos clínicos entre as fases 1 e 2 foi avaliada pelos testes t de Student. Mudanças com relação ao conhecimento de cada indivíduo foram mensuradas pelo teste de qui-quadrado de McNemar. As diferenças entre o modo de atender os pacientes entre as duas fases foram determinadas pelo teste de qui-quadrado de Pearson. A concordância diagnóstica foi analisada utilizando o Kappa, com o intuito de corrigir a concordância ao acaso. RESULTADOS: O programa mostrou benefícios limitados nessa amostra de clínicos gerais. Não foi capaz de mostrar aumento do conhecimento sobre a depressão e nem quanto à atitude dos médicos com relação a esse transtorno. Não houve modificação no número de casos diagnosticados antes ou após o programa. Existiram algumas evidências com relação à melhora no manejo psicofarmacológico. Aparentemente, o programa tornou os clínicos mais confiantes para o tratamento da depressão, diminuindo o número de encaminhamentos feitos aos profissionais da área de saúde mental. Porém, um baixo poder estatístico não permitiu que os dois últimos achados atingissem significância. CONCLUSÕES: A inclusão de clínicos gerais é um componente central de qualquer iniciativa para melhorar a detecção e o tratamento da depressão, porém faz-se necessário testar melhores métodos de treinamento dos clínicos brasileiros no manejo desta.

OBJECTIVE: The American Regional Office of the WHO has launched a major initiative to reduce the prevalence of affective disorders region-wide that includes focusing on the primary health care system. This study evaluated the results of an educational training program for Brazilian primary care physicians that measured changes in knowledge, attitudes, and practice. METHODS: A total of 17 primary care physicians and 1,224 patients participated in the study. Physician's knowledge, attitudes, and clinical practice were assessed one-month prior and one-month following the training program. In addition, the patients that visited the clinic during a typical week completed depression symptom self-ratings, including the Zung and a DSM-IV/ICD-10 major depression checklist at both times. RESULTS: The training program showed limited benefits in this small sample of physicians. The program was unable to demonstrate benefit in improving knowledge about depression and in changing disorder-related attitudes. There were no changes in the diagnostic rates of major depression. There was some evidence to support improvement in psychopharmacological management. The physicians seemed more confident in treating patients, as there was a reduction of referrals to the specialists. Lack of statistical power prevented the latter two findings from reaching statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: The inclusion of primary care physicians is a central component of any initiative to reduce the treatment gap and lag of depression. However, more effective methods of training Brazilian primary care physicians in the management of major depression need to be tested.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar os resultados da aplicação de programa de treinamento da Organização Mundial de Saúde, voltado para diagnóstico e tratamento da depressão, dirigido a médicos clínicos gerais. MÉTODOS: Dezessete clínicos e 1.224 pacientes da cidade de Campinas, SP, participaram do estudo. Um mês antes e um após o treinamento, foram avaliados o conhecimento dos médicos, suas atitudes e o atendimento prestado aos pacientes; esses, por sua vez, completaram escalas de auto-avaliação de sintomas depressivos: Zung e um "checklist" para depressão maior do manual para diagnóstico e estatística em saúde mental (DSM-IV/CID-10). A mudança de conhecimento e atitude dos clínicos entre as fases 1 e 2 foi avaliada pelos testes t de Student. Mudanças com relação ao conhecimento de cada indivíduo foram mensuradas pelo teste de qui-quadrado de McNemar. As diferenças entre o modo de atender os pacientes entre as duas fases foram determinadas pelo teste de qui-quadrado de Pearson. A concordância diagnóstica foi analisada utilizando o Kappa, com o intuito de corrigir a concordância ao acaso. RESULTADOS: O programa mostrou benefícios limitados nessa amostra de clínicos gerais. Não foi capaz de mostrar aumento do conhecimento sobre a depressão e nem quanto à atitude dos médicos com relação a esse transtorno. Não houve modificação no número de casos diagnosticados antes ou após o programa. Existiram algumas evidências com relação à melhora no manejo psicofarmacológico. Aparentemente, o programa tornou os clínicos mais confiantes para o tratamento da depressão, diminuindo o número de encaminhamentos feitos aos profissionais da área de saúde mental. Porém, um baixo poder estatístico não permitiu que os dois últimos achados atingissem significância. CONCLUSÕES: A inclusão de clínicos gerais é um componente central de qualquer iniciativa para melhorar a detecção e o tratamento da depressão, porém faz-se necessário testar melhores métodos de treinamento dos clínicos brasileiros no manejo desta.

OBJECTIVE: The American Regional Office of the WHO has launched a major initiative to reduce the prevalence of affective disorders region-wide that includes focusing on the primary health care system. This study evaluated the results of an educational training program for Brazilian primary care physicians that measured changes in knowledge, attitudes, and practice. METHODS: A total of 17 primary care physicians and 1,224 patients participated in the study. Physician's knowledge, attitudes, and clinical practice were assessed one-month prior and one-month following the training program. In addition, the patients that visited the clinic during a typical week completed depression symptom self-ratings, including the Zung and a DSM-IV/ICD-10 major depression checklist at both times. RESULTS: The training program showed limited benefits in this small sample of physicians. The program was unable to demonstrate benefit in improving knowledge about depression and in changing disorder-related attitudes. There were no changes in the diagnostic rates of major depression. There was some evidence to support improvement in psychopharmacological management. The physicians seemed more confident in treating patients, as there was a reduction of referrals to the specialists. Lack of statistical power prevented the latter two findings from reaching statistical significance. CONCLUSIONS: The inclusion of primary care physicians is a central component of any initiative to reduce the treatment gap and lag of depression. However, more effective methods of training Brazilian primary care physicians in the management of major depression need to be tested.

Background: The Diagnostic and Statistic Manual (DSM) solved the problem of diagnostic criteria for psychiatric diseases. Highly structured interviews such as Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) allow the evaluation of psychiatric disorders in large samples, whith great accuracy. Aim: To report the prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders in a representative sample of Chilean individuals. Material and methods: The CIDI was administered to 2978 Chilean individuals coming form four provinces. Lifetime and prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders, based in the third revision of the DSM, were calculated. Results: Thirty six percent of the population had a psychiatric disorder at least once in their lifetime and 23% had a disorder in the last six months. The most common lifetime diagnoses were agoraphobia in 11%, major depressive disorders in 9%, dysthymia in 8% and alcohol dependence in 6%. Only 49% of those with a psychiatric disorder sought medical care, while 4% of those individuals considered devoid of psychiatric illnesses, consulted in a mental health facility. Conclusions: The prevalence of psychiatric disorders in the Chilean population is similar to that of other Spanish speaking populations in Latin or North America (Rev Méd Chile 2002; 130: 527-36)