OBJECTIVE: To determine the association of different feeding patterns for infants (exclusive breastfeeding, predominant breastfeeding, partial breastfeeding and no breastfeeding) with mortality and hospital admissions during the first half of infancy. METHODS: This paper is based on a secondary analysis of data from a multicentre randomized controlled trial on immunization-linked vitamin A supplementation. Altogether, 9424 infants and their mothers (2919 in Ghana, 4000 in India and 2505 in Peru) were enrolled when infants were 18-42 days old in two urban slums in New Delhi, India, a periurban shanty town in Lima, Peru, and 37 villages in the Kintampo district of Ghana. Mother-infant pairs were visited at home every 4 weeks from the time the infant received the first dose of oral polio vaccine and diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus at the age of 6 weeks in Ghana and India and at the age of 10 weeks in Peru. At each visit, mothers were queried about what they had offered their infant to eat or drink during the past week. Information was also collected on hospital admissions and deaths occurring between the ages of 6 weeks and 6 months. The main outcome measures were all-cause mortality, diarrhoea-specific mortality, mortality caused by acute lower respiratory infections, and hospital admissions. FINDINGS: There was no significant difference in the risk of death between children who were exclusively breastfed and those who were predominantly breastfed (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) = 1.46; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.75-2.86). Non-breastfed infants had a higher risk of dying when compared with those who had been predominantly breastfed (HR = 10.5; 95% CI = 5.0-22.0; P < 0.001) as did partially breastfed infants (HR = 2.46; 95% CI = 1.44-4.18; P = 0.001). CONCLUSION: There are two major implications of these findings. First, the extremely high risks of infant mortality associated with not being breastfed need to be taken into account when informing HIV-infected mothers about options for feeding their infants. Second, our finding that the risks of death are similar for infants who are predominantly breastfed and those who are exclusively breastfed suggests that in settings where rates of predominant breastfeeding are already high, promotion efforts should focus on sustaining these high rates rather than on attempting to achieve a shift from predominant breastfeeding to exclusive breastfeeding.

OBJETIVO: Determinar la relación existente entre diferentes pautas de alimentación de los lactantes (lactancia materna como alimentación exclusiva, predominante, parcial o nula) y la mortalidad y los ingresos hospitalarios durante la primera mitad de la lactancia. MÉTODOS: Este artículo se basa en un análisis secundario de los datos aportados por un ensayo controlado aleatorizado multicéntrico sobre la administración de suplementos de vitamina A vinculada a la inmunización. En total, 9424 pares de madre y lactante (2919 en Ghana, 4000 en la India y 2505 en el Perú) entraron a participar en este estudio cuando los lactantes tenían 18-42 días en dos barrios pobres urbanos de Nueva Delhi, India, un poblado periurbano de chabolas de Lima, Perú, y 37 aldeas del distrito de Kintampo en Ghana. Cada madre y lactante fueron visitados en su vivienda a intervalos de 4 semanas desde el momento en que el niño recibió la primera dosis de vacuna antipoliomielítica oral y de difteria-tétanos-tos ferina, a la edad de 6 semanas en Ghana y la India, y de 10 semanas en el Perú. En cada visita se preguntaba a las madres qué habían dado de comer y beber al niño durante la última semana. También se recogía información sobre los ingresos hospitalarios y las defunciones que se hubieran producido entre las 6 semanas y los 6 meses. Las principales medidas de resultado fueron la mortalidad por todas las causas, la mortalidad específica por diarrea, la mortalidad por infecciones agudas de las vías respiratorias inferiores y los ingresos en hospitales. RESULTADOS: No se observó ninguna diferencia importante entre el riesgo de defunción de los niños que fueron amamantados como alimentación exclusiva y los alimentados predominantemente al pecho (razón de riesgo (RR) ajustada = 1,46; intervalo de confianza (IC) del 95% = 0,75-2,86). Los lactantes no amamantados presentaron un mayor riesgo de morir que los predominantemente amamantados (RR = 10,5; IC95% = 5,0-22,0; P < 0,001), y lo mismo ocurrió con los alimentados al pecho de forma parcial (RR = 2,46; IC95% = 1,44-4,18; P = 0,001). CONCLUSIÓN: Estos resultados tienen dos implicaciones muy importantes. Primero, a la hora de informar a las madres infectadas por el VIH acerca de las opciones para alimentar a sus lactantes, hay que tener en cuenta el riesgo extremadamente alto de mortalidad infantil asociado a la ausencia de lactancia natural. Segundo, nuestro hallazgo de un riesgo de defunción semejante para los lactantes que sólo recibieron leche materna y los que se alimentaron predominantemente de ese modo lleva a pensar que, en los entornos donde las tasas de lactancia natural predominante son ya elevadas, las actividades de promoción deben centrarse en mantener esas tasas altas, antes que en intentar forzar un cambio de lactancia materna predominante a lactancia materna exclusiva.

OBJECTIF: Déterminer l'association entre différents modes d'alimentation des nourrissons (allaitement maternel exclusif, allaitement maternel prédominant, allaitement maternel partiel et absence d'allaitement maternel) et la mortalité et les hospitalisations pendant les six premiers mois. MÉTHODES: Le présent document s'appuie sur une analyse secondaire des données provenant d'un essai contrôlé randomisé multicentrique sur la supplémentation en vitamine A associée à la vaccination. Au total, 9424 enfants et leurs mères (2919 au Ghana, 4000 en Inde et 2505 au Pérou) ont été inclus dans l'essai alors que les nourrissons avaient entre 18 et 42 jours dans deux taudis urbains de New Delhi (Inde), un bidonville périurbain de Lima (Pérou) et 37 villages du district de Kintampo (Ghana). Des visites au domicile des couples mère-enfant ont été effectuées à des intervalles de 4 semaines à compter de l'administration au nourrisson de la première dose de vaccin antipoliomyélitique buccal et de vaccin antidiphtérique-anticoquelucheux-antitétanique, à 6 semaines au Ghana et en Inde et à 10 semaines au Pérou. A chaque visite, les mères devaient dire ce qu'elles avaient proposé à boire ou à manger à leur nourrisson au cours de la semaine écoulée. Des données ont aussi été recueillies sur les hospitalisations et les décès de nourrissons entre 6 semaines et 6 mois. Les principaux critères de jugement utilisés étaient la mortalité toutes causes confondues, la mortalité par diarrhée, la mortalité due à des infections aiguës des voies respiratoires inférieures et les hospitalisations. RÉSULTATS: Le risque de décès ne variait pas sensiblement selon que les enfants étaient nourris au sein exclusivement ou de façon prédominante (rapport des risques ajustés (RR) = 1,46; intervalle de confiance à 95% (IC) = 0,75-2,86). Le risque de décès était plus élevé pour les enfants n'étant pas nourris au sein que pour les enfants nourris au sein de façon prédominante (RR = 10,5; IC à 95% = 5,0-22,0; p < 0,001), ce qui était également le cas des enfants nourris partiellement au sein (RR = 2,46; IC à 95% = 1,44-4,18; p = 0,001). CONCLUSION: Ces résultats ont deux incidences majeures. Premièrement, le risque de mortalité infantile extrêmement élevé associé à l'absence d'allaitement au sein doit être pris en compte dans les options proposées aux mères infectées par le VIH concernant l'alimentation de leur nourrisson. Deuxièmement, compte tenu des risques de décès similaires pour les nourrissons nourris au sein de façon prédominante et pour ceux qui sont nourris au sein exclusivement, les mesures de promotion, là où les taux d'allaitement au sein prédominant sont déjà élevés, devraient viser à maintenir ces taux élevés et non à tenter de substituer l'alimentation au sein exclusive à l'alimentation au sein prédominante.

Estudou-se a aderência ao tratamento de pneumonia em crianças, em serviço ambulatorial de hospital pediátrico em Fortaleza, Brasil. Foram investigadas 171 crianças com diagnóstico de pneumonia. Através de questionário foram coletadas informações referentes à prescrição médica e estimada a aderência ao tratamento de 149 crianças. Os antimicrobianos mais comumente prescritos foram penicilina procaína (33%), penicilina benzatina (31%), ampicilina ou amoxacilina (12%) e cotrimoxazol (8%). Embora tenha sido freqüente a associação de antimicrobianos com outros medicamentos, tratamento exclusivo com penicilina procaina foi prescrito para 31 crianças. A aderência ao uso de antimicrobianos foi de 52%, tendo sido mais elevada para os pacientes tratados exclusivamente com medicação injetável. As prescrições médicas combinaram, muitas vezes, diferentes antimicrobianos durante o mesmo tratamento. A análise das diferentes associações antimicrobianas revelou que apenas 81 (54%) crianças receberam tratamento apropriado, por período de cinco ou mais dias. Conclui-se que a identificação de antimicrobianos que possam resultar na maior aderência ao tratamento permanece como um dos principais desafios no manejo ambulatorial das pneumonias nas crianças. Outros medicamentos incluíram os analgésicos e broncodilatadores.

Results are reported from a study on drug use in treatment of children with pneumonia in a pediatric hospital in the city of Fortaleza, Northeastern Brazil. There were 171 out-patients; prescription details were obtained for 149. The most commonly prescribed antimicrobial drug was procaine penicillin, accounting for 33% of antimicrobial prescriptions, followed by benzathine penicillin (31%), ampicillin or amoxicillin (12%), and cotrimoxazole (8%). Benzathine penicillin was frequently given with other drugs, but was the sole antimicrobial agent for 31 children. Compliance with antimicrobial treatment was 52% overall and was higher for the injectables. Prescription patterns varied from child to child, and children were often prescribed more than one antimicrobial in the same or repeat prescriptions; combining this information with compliance, 81 (54%) of the children were estimated to have received 5 or more days of appropriate antimicrobial treatment for pneumonia. This percentage is not high, and five days were often reached after using more than one antimicrobial and after repeat visits. The authors concluded that the need remains for simple antimicrobial regimes, attractive to comply with, that can be expected to be consistently used. Other drugs were chiefly analgesics and bronchodilators.

Estudou-se a aderência ao tratamento de pneumonia em crianças, em serviço ambulatorial de hospital pediátrico em Fortaleza, Brasil. Foram investigadas 171 crianças com diagnóstico de pneumonia. Através de questionário foram coletadas informações referentes à prescrição médica e estimada a aderência ao tratamento de 149 crianças. Os antimicrobianos mais comumente prescritos foram penicilina procaína (33%), penicilina benzatina (31%), ampicilina ou amoxacilina (12%) e cotrimoxazol (8%). Embora tenha sido freqüente a associação de antimicrobianos com outros medicamentos, tratamento exclusivo com penicilina procaina foi prescrito para 31 crianças. A aderência ao uso de antimicrobianos foi de 52%, tendo sido mais elevada para os pacientes tratados exclusivamente com medicação injetável. As prescrições médicas combinaram, muitas vezes, diferentes antimicrobianos durante o mesmo tratamento. A análise das diferentes associações antimicrobianas revelou que apenas 81 (54%) crianças receberam tratamento apropriado, por período de cinco ou mais dias. Conclui-se que a identificação de antimicrobianos que possam resultar na maior aderência ao tratamento permanece como um dos principais desafios no manejo ambulatorial das pneumonias nas crianças. Outros medicamentos incluíram os analgésicos e broncodilatadores.

Results are reported from a study on drug use in treatment of children with pneumonia in a pediatric hospital in the city of Fortaleza, Northeastern Brazil. There were 171 out-patients; prescription details were obtained for 149. The most commonly prescribed antimicrobial drug was procaine penicillin, accounting for 33% of antimicrobial prescriptions, followed by benzathine penicillin (31%), ampicillin or amoxicillin (12%), and cotrimoxazole (8%). Benzathine penicillin was frequently given with other drugs, but was the sole antimicrobial agent for 31 children. Compliance with antimicrobial treatment was 52% overall and was higher for the injectables. Prescription patterns varied from child to child, and children were often prescribed more than one antimicrobial in the same or repeat prescriptions; combining this information with compliance, 81 (54%) of the children were estimated to have received 5 or more days of appropriate antimicrobial treatment for pneumonia. This percentage is not high, and five days were often reached after using more than one antimicrobial and after repeat visits. The authors concluded that the need remains for simple antimicrobial regimes, attractive to comply with, that can be expected to be consistently used. Other drugs were chiefly analgesics and bronchodilators.

Estudou-se o risco de pneumonia nas crianças menores de dois anos na região metropolitana de Fortaleza entre junho/89 e maio/90. Foram investigadas as práticas relacionadas aos cuidados da criança como possíveis fatores de risco de pneumonia. Fatores maternos, ambientais e sócio-econômicos foram também estudados devido a sua possível relação com as práticas no cuidado da criança. Foi utilizada metodologia de caso-controle, sendo casos as crianças com diagnóstico clínico e radiológico de pneumonia, e controles aquelas crianças com diferença de idade inferior a dois meses que não apresentassem sintomas de infecção respiratória, e que residissem na vizinhança do caso selecionado. Razão de "odds" (RO) foi utilizada para estimar os riscos relativos, através de regressão logística condicional. Os principais fatores de risco encontrados foram a freqüência a creche (RO=5,2), trabalho da mãe (RO=1,6) e presença dos avós no domicílio (RO=1,4). A idade da mãe, o número de gestações e a aglomeração também estiveram associados com pneumonia.

We carried out a case-control study to investigate risk factors for childhood pneumonia in two groups of 650 children aged under two years in the city of Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil. The cases were children recruited at the main pediatric hospital with a radiological diagnosis of pneumonia, and controls were children of the same age group recruited from the neighbourhood of the cases. In this paper we focus on variables related to childcare practices. Working mothers, proportion of time the mother had worked since the child was born, and use of day care centers emerged as important risk factors with estimated relative risks of 1.58, 1.76 and 5.22, respectively. Also important were the number of children living in the house and presence of grandparents. However, the presence of siblings under two years and the birth order were not associated with pneumonia. All analysis included adjustment for confounding by income, parents' education, and other risk factors as appropriate. This is the first study from a developing country to identify attendance at day care centers as a risk factor for increased childhood morbidity, in this case pneumonia. This finding is of significant public health importance for countries such as Brazil with growing urban populations and an increasing need by mothers to find work outside the home.

Estudou-se o risco de pneumonia nas crianças menores de dois anos na região metropolitana de Fortaleza entre junho/89 e maio/90. Foram investigadas as práticas relacionadas aos cuidados da criança como possíveis fatores de risco de pneumonia. Fatores maternos, ambientais e sócio-econômicos foram também estudados devido a sua possível relação com as práticas no cuidado da criança. Foi utilizada metodologia de caso-controle, sendo casos as crianças com diagnóstico clínico e radiológico de pneumonia, e controles aquelas crianças com diferença de idade inferior a dois meses que não apresentassem sintomas de infecção respiratória, e que residissem na vizinhança do caso selecionado. Razão de "odds" (RO) foi utilizada para estimar os riscos relativos, através de regressão logística condicional. Os principais fatores de risco encontrados foram a freqüência a creche (RO=5,2), trabalho da mãe (RO=1,6) e presença dos avós no domicílio (RO=1,4). A idade da mãe, o número de gestações e a aglomeração também estiveram associados com pneumonia.

We carried out a case-control study to investigate risk factors for childhood pneumonia in two groups of 650 children aged under two years in the city of Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil. The cases were children recruited at the main pediatric hospital with a radiological diagnosis of pneumonia, and controls were children of the same age group recruited from the neighbourhood of the cases. In this paper we focus on variables related to childcare practices. Working mothers, proportion of time the mother had worked since the child was born, and use of day care centers emerged as important risk factors with estimated relative risks of 1.58, 1.76 and 5.22, respectively. Also important were the number of children living in the house and presence of grandparents. However, the presence of siblings under two years and the birth order were not associated with pneumonia. All analysis included adjustment for confounding by income, parents' education, and other risk factors as appropriate. This is the first study from a developing country to identify attendance at day care centers as a risk factor for increased childhood morbidity, in this case pneumonia. This finding is of significant public health importance for countries such as Brazil with growing urban populations and an increasing need by mothers to find work outside the home.