Abstract Among the policies for the creation of protected areas, the “Park” category is the best known worldwide. In Brazil, the national parks are important areas for the conservation of biodiversity and for ecotourism, but twenty years after the enactment of the law that regulates the National System of Protected Areas, there is no clear scenario of the National Parks’ current situation regarding the fulfillment of their legal objectives. Aiming to understand this scenario in the six main Brazilian biomes, we evaluated variables related to: level of land regularization, existence and updating of management plans, number of authorized scientific research studies, variation in the number of visitors, development of recreation activities, ecotourism, and existence of an Advisory Council. For all biomes, the results regarding the legal objectives’ attainment are negative, mostly in terms of land regularization, with the worst results being found in the Caatinga biome < 2% of the area within parks regularized. We concluded that only in specific cases the legal objectives of these protected areas are being accomplished and, therefore, if we keep the pace and the implementation and management policies of the last 20 years, the outlook is pessimistic for the conservation of Brazilian biodiversity.

ABSTRACT Mineral extraction areas are a significant environmental concern due to soil, water, and plant food resources contamination. Some medicinal plant species, such as those of the genus Baccharis, potentially bioaccumulate toxic elements. We evaluate the metal content from coal mining activity present in Baccharis sagittalis and in the soil; and whether this plant consumption represents a risk to human health. Cd and Pb presented levels that exceed those recommended by three global health agencies. Cd and Pb showed high levels in the projections of the daily intake recommended by international health agencies. After interviewing local residents close to mining areas, we found that 53.8 % of the interviewees mentioned the consumption of Baccharis sagittalis as infusion. These results indicate that the consumption of metal-contaminated Baccharis sagittalis can cause health problems as those metals accumulate in the human body. However, studies on Al, Ba, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Zn acceptable levels in plants consumed by humans are scarce. The contamination of plant species with associated traditional use close to mining areas can increase food security vulnerability of people who live near those areas and are constantly exposed to these agents, using plants gathered in the region.

Resumo Além de sua importância ecológica, espécies epífitas de Orchidaceae desempenham papéis econômicos e sociais através de sua comercialização e algumas estão em grande risco de extinção. O objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar a anatomia foliar e radicular de quatorze espécies epífitas de Orchidaceae, que ocorrem em território indígena no Parque Estadual da Serra do Tabuleiro (PEST), Santa Catarina, Brasil e identificar características anatômicas adaptativas relacionadas ao hábito epifitico. As espécies são comercializadas pelos Guarani e foram coletadas durante entrevistas e visitas guiadas com os Guarani no território indígena. Os resultados revelam que as espécies possuem muitas estruturas morfoanatômicas úteis durante a escassez de água resultante do hábito epifítico. Características notáveis estão relacionadas à reserva de água (pseudobulbos e hipoderme com células de armazenamento de água) e resistência à dessecação na folha (cutícula conspícua, câmara suprasomática e fibras extraxilares e pericíclicas) e raiz (i.e., tilossomas e / ou espessamento exodérmico e células do córtex com espessamentos phi ou esclereides). Descrições e identificação de características adaptativas de espécies de plantas epífitas são úteis para estudos de conservação e cultivo, especialmente para plantas utilizadas comercialmente pelos índios Guarani.

Abstract Besides their ecological importance, epiphytic species of Orchidaceae play economic and social roles through their commercialization and some are at great risk of extinction. The objectives of this study were to characterize the leaf and root anatomy of fourteen epiphytic Orchidaceae species, which occur in indigenous territory in the Parque Estadual da Serra do Tabuleiro (P.E.S.T.), Santa Catarina, Brazil and to identify adaptive anatomical characteristics related to the epiphytic habit. The species are commercialized by the Guarani and were collected during interviews and guided tours with Guarani in the indigenous territory. The results reveal the species have many morphoanatomical structures that are useful during water shortages resulting from the epiphytic habit. Notable characteristics are related to reserving water (i.e., pseudobulbs and a hypodermis with water-storage cells) and resistance to desiccation in the leaf (i.e., conspicuous cuticle, suprastomatic chamber and extraxylary and pericyclic fibers) and root (i.e., tilosomes and/or exodermal thickening and cortex cells with phi thickenings or sclereids). Descriptions and the identification of adaptive characteristics of epiphytic plant species are useful for conservation and cultivation studies, especially for plants commercially used by the Guarani Indians.

ABSTRACT Ethnomedicine focuses on empirical and traditional knowledge of healing practices of different human groups, including the use of plants as medicine. We aimed to determine whether there is consensus regarding the use of plants in traditional medicine of Afro-descendant communities in Brazil, Europe and Africa. Data were obtained through interviews, walks-in-the-woods, participant observations and bibliographic searches. We analyzed similarities among data sets to determine whether there is convergence in the use of traditional medicinal plants among these communities considering that they share influence from African culture and a common spoken language (Portuguese). Similarities among communities were assessed through cluster analysis using presence or absence data for the variables. We recorded 405 medicinal plants, most of which were spontaneously occurring, although some were cultivated. The most represented botanical families were Asteraceae and Lamiaceae. Similarity in medicinal plants among communities was found to be tenuous due to the biogeographical and spatial characteristics of the biomes, and to historical and cultural peculiarities of each locality, resulting in different sets of medicinal plants. This study contributes to understanding the role of the historical legacies of the African diaspora and of European (Portuguese) expansion in the adaptation and maintenance of new elements in local floras.

ABSTRACT We analyzed the botanical knowledge of the Laklãnõ-Xokleng people in the Ibirama Laklãnõ Indigenous Territory. They are the last remnant of this ethnicity living in a unitary socio-political organization. The objective was to investigate the dynamics, distribution and transmission of botanical information. We interviewed 112 people in two villages about known and used plants. Data were collected through structured socioeconomic questionnaires, free lists and walk-in-the-woods tours. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and metrics of social network analysis. Of the 314 plants mentioned in the interviews, 77 % were currently used, 15 % were used in the past, and 8 % were known but never used. Men cited more plants than women. We found no correlation between the distribution of knowledge and age, but there was a relationship between families that valued Laklãnõ-Xokleng culture and individual knowledge. Transmission of knowledge about plants used medicinally and for handicrafts occurs mainly between generations and during childhood. Transmission networks emphasize the central position of elders as knowledge transmitters for their families. Different network topologies reflect particular dynamics in the medicinal and handicraft use of plants. External and internal pressures have caused changes in the transmission of the botanical knowledge of the Laklãnõ-Xokleng.

ABSTRACT For at least 30 years researchers have called for a deeper reflection on the paths we desire for ethnobotanical research. Although the discipline of ethnobotany is growing, as measured by the number of publications in the area, there is still work to be done regarding the homogeneity of theoretical and methodological approaches and the implications of ethnobotanical research findings for society as a whole. In this article we present 10 questions/issues that we believe can guide the research and actions of ethnobotanists for the coming years.

Resumo As estratégias globais no âmbito da CDB são importantes para orientar políticas e recursos para a conservação da diversidade biológica. Este artigo enfatizou a necessidade de desenvolver ações no âmbito da Estratégia Global para a Conservação de Plantas (GSPC) com resultados mensuráveis até 2020, no que se refere ao status e as perspectivas relacionadas às metas 12 e 13, com foco no contexto brasileiro, visando identificar lacunas e ações para alcançar os objetivos para conservação e o uso sustentável das plantas. Salienta-se que a meta 12 abrange também a exploração madeireira, não necessariamente de relação direta com povos indígenas e comunidades tradicionais, porém pode vir a ameaçar seus meios de subsistência. No Brasil, o conhecimento científico sobre os efeitos ecológicos da coleta de produtos florestais não madeireiros ainda é limitado e poucos estudos contribuíram para o estabelecimento de regulamentações legais para coleta e manejo. Com relação à meta 13, que diz respeito aos conhecimentos tradicionais e indígenas sobre o uso de plantas e à dependência desses povos pelas plantas, ainda faltam iniciativas de políticas integradoras e eficazes. No entanto, considerando o contexto político negativo das últimas décadas e exacerbado nos últimos anos, em relação à conservação da biodiversidade e aos povos indígenas e comunidades locais são necessárias mudanças profundas no cenário brasileiro, com forte apoio e reconhecimento para os povos indígenas e comunidades locais, para que qualquer objetivo relacionado ao alcance das metas da GSPC seja minimamente perseguido.

Abstract Global strategies under the scope of CBD are important in guiding policies and resources for the conservation of biological diversity. This paper emphasized the need to develop actions under the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) with measurable results up to 2020, regarding the status and perspectives related to Targets 12 and 13, focusing on the Brazilian context in order to identify gaps and actions to achieve the goals for conservation and sustainable use of plants. It should be noted that Target 12 also covers logging, not necessarily directly related to indigenous peoples and traditional communities, but may threaten their livelihoods. In Brazil, scientific knowledge about the ecological effects of the harvesting of non-timber forest products is still limited, and few studies have contributed to the establishment of legal regulations for collection and management. With regard to target 13, which concerns traditional and indigenous knowledge about plant use and the dependence of these peoples on plants, there are still a lack of integrative and effective policy initiatives. However, considering the negative political context of recent decades and exacerbated in recent years in relation to biodiversity conservation and indigenous peoples and local communities, profound changes are necessary in the Brazilian scenario, with strong support and recognition for indigenous peoples and local communities, so that any objective related to the achievement of the goals of the GSPC is minimally achieved.

Resumo Os ecossistemas Mata Atlântica e Caatinga apesar de diferirem em termos de biodiversidade e condições geoclimáticas se assemelham pela heterogeneidade de formações vegetais que compõem as suas floras e por serem detentores de uma rica sociodiversidade. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi de mapear as pesquisas etnobotânicas realizadas nos ecossistemas Mata Atlântica e Caatinga, chamando-se atenção para as comunidades mais investigadas, as regiões mais estudadas, assim como as formações vegetais em que se concentram maior número de pesquisas. Foi efetuada uma revisão bibliográfica sobre os artigos de cunho etnobotânico realizados em áreas pertencentes ao território original dos ecossistemas Caatinga e Mata Atlântica e que abordaram o uso ou o conhecimento de recursos vegetais medicinais e alimentícios por populações locais. As regiões com as maiores concentrações de estudos (região Sudeste e Sul na Mata Atlântica e os estados de Pernambuco e Paraíba na Caatinga), refletem a presença dos grupos de pesquisas localizados nessas regiões. As pesquisas etnobotânicas estão cumprindo o seu papel ao investigar e abranger todo o território ocupado pela Mata Atlântica e Caatinga, no entanto, diante do mapeamento realizado, percebe-se determinadas regiões em ambos os ecossistemas que ainda necessitam de um maior esforço de pesquisas.

Abstract The Atlantic Forest and Caatinga ecosystems differ in terms of biodiversity and geoclimatic conditions but are similar in their rich socio-diversity and heterogeneity of vegetation types that comprise their floras. The objectives of this work were to map the ethnobotanical studies that have been conducted in these ecosystems and record the most investigated communities, regions, and vegetation formations related to this research. A literature review was made of ethnobotanical articles related to the use and knowledge of medicinal and food plants employed by local populations within the original territories of the Caatinga and Atlantic Forest. The areas with the highest concentrations of studies (Southeast and South regions in the Atlantic Forest and the states of Pernambuco and Paraíba in the Caatinga) reflect the presence of research groups in these regions. Until now, it was thought that ethnobotanical studies had been conducted throughout the Atlantic Forest and Caatinga; however, the results of this work show that both ecosystems contain areas that still need to be studied.

ABSTRACT Among the agricultural environments of traditional communities, home gardens are frequently cited as high agrobiodiversity sites. However, the agrobiodiversity of home gardens along a rural-urban gradient demands study in order to identify possible influences of urbanization and to support mitigation of impacts. The present work investigated the role home gardens play in the in situ agrobiodiversity conservation of plants in quilombola communities with different degrees of urbanization. The study found that more urbanized communities have larger home gardens, but the average richness of plant species in these areas was not statistically different among the communities. Furthermore, the abundance of plant species was similar. Medicinal and food plants were mainly found in home gardens of the communities with high to intermediate levels of urbanization, while ornamental plants were more common in rural community home gardens. It is believed that crop exclusivity in home gardens of the more urbanized communities highly influenced the results, increasing the role home gardens play in maintaining traditional practices. The elevated and statistically equal species richness in home gardens suggests that, despite the factors generated by urbanization, all of the communities are very important for in situ conservation of native and introduced species.

A compreensão das relações entre populações humanas locais e unidades de conservação (UC) é crucial para a melhoria da gestão das áreas. As perspectivas das populações locais sobre as relações população-UC foram analisadas com base em dados secundários. Para tal, foram consideradas cinco UC Federais Marinho-Costeiras de Santa Catarina e cinco domínios analíticos: econômico, ambiental, espacial, organizacional e cultural. Foram analisados 21 estudos que conjuntamente contemplavam todos os domínios. A pesca destacou-se como atividade economicamente importante para as populações. Para todas UC foram registrados impactos ambientais negativos. Conflitos no uso do espaço, distanciamento das populações com a gestão das UC e declínio da atividade pesqueira também foram relatados. A comparação dos domínios analíticos permitiu identificar lacunas do conhecimento a serem investigadas e pontos importantes a serem trabalhados pelos gestores das UC.

Understanding the relationship between local people and protected areas (PAs) is essential for improving the management of these areas. The local peoples' perspectives of their relationship with PAs were analyzed based on secondary data. We focused on five Federal Coastal-Marine PAs in the state of Santa Catarina and five analytical domains: economic, environmental, spatial, organizational and cultural. We analyzed 21 studies that together contemplated all domains. Fishing was the most important economic activity for local peoples. For all PAs, negative environmental impacts were registered. Conflicts in use of space, distance between local people and PAs management, and decline of fishing activity were also reported. The comparison of the analytical domains allowed us to identify gaps in the knowledge to be investigated and important points to be addressed by the managers of the PAs.

Comprender la relación entre las poblaciones humanas locales y las áreas de conservación (AC) es crucial para mejorar la gestión de estas áreas. Las perspectivas de las poblaciones locales acerca de las relaciones población-AC's fueron analizadas com base en datos secundarios. Fueron consideradas cinco AC Federales Marino-Costeras de Santa Catarina y cinco temas analíticos: económico, ambiental, espacial, organizativo y cultural. Se analizaron 21 estudios que conjuntamente contemplaban todos los temas. La pesca fue la actividad económicamente más importante para las poblaciones. Para todas las AC fueron registrados impactos ambientales negativos. Conflictos en el uso del espacio, distanciamiento de las poblaciones con la gestión de las AC y el declive de la pesca, también fueron reportados. La comparación de los temas analíticos permitió identificar brechas de conocimiento por investigar y puntos importantes para ser trabajados por los administradores de las AC.

Legal measures, such as the use of free or prior and informed consent, return of research results to communities (which can be understood as "sharing of benefits," according to Brazilian legislation), and research authorization by governmental bodies, are mentioned and regulated in various documents, either governmental or specific, within the area of ethnobiology. This study aims to explore how these matters are considered in the scope of published ethnobotany articles in Brazil, as well as whether the creation of the Provisional Measure 2.186-16/2001 has contributed to the national advance of these matters. The methodology comprised a literature review of articles focusing on medicinal and food plant resources in the prominent Brazilian journals which publish ethnobotany studies. From 137 articles analyzed, 8 mentioned the return of research results to the community; 21 explicitly cited the use of free or prior and informed consent; and 13 mentioned the authorization of governmental bodies. We expect that the present study will contribute to the debate regarding the necessity of reformulation of the current system, which would guarantee a more effective rapport between the government, researchers, local communities, and society and contribute to the development of ethnobotany in Brazil.

O objetivo deste artigo foi investigar o conhecimento ecológico local dos pescadores ao longo de um gradiente latitudinal no litoral de Santa Catarina, sobre o ciclo de vida da tainha Mugil liza (aspectos migratórios, alimentares, reprodutivos e comportamentais). Nossa amostragem abrangeu oito cidades costeiras de Santa Catarina (nove locais de pesca artesanal) e engajou 45 informantes chave (28 -86 anos de idade) a partir de entrevistas semiestruturadas entre Agosto/2011 e Março/2012. Este peixe se alimenta e cresce em sistemas lagunares e estuarinos, migrando para o mar para a reprodução e desova. Pescadores reconhecem a Laguna dos Patos e o rio da Prata como as principais fontes de cardumes. A migração ocorre do Sul para o Norte e as rotas variam em função de condições climáticas e oceanográficas (e.g., baixa temperatura, vento Sul, chuva, correntes e salinidade). Estas condições influenciam a abundância de tainhas (e portanto o sucesso pesqueiro), a sua migração e as paradas em locais como praias, costões rochosos e ilhas. De acordo com os pescadores, a desova das tainhas ocorre ao longo do litoral catarinense e se alimentam em sistemas lagunares e rios, mas também em mar aberto durante a migração. Em conclusão, pescadores possuem um conhecimento detalhado sobre o ciclo de vida da tainha e identificam variações intra e interanuais nas rotas migratórias, um padrão que precisa ser considerado no manejo da pescaria.

This research investigates local ecological knowledge of fishers in communities along a latitudinal gradient in the coast of the Santa Catarina State, regarding the life cycle of mullets Mugil liza (migration, feeding, and reproductive behavior). Our sampling encompassed eight Santa Catarina coastal cities (nine artisanal fishing sites) and engaged 45 key informants (28- 86 years of age) through semi-structured interviews from August/2011 to March/2012. This fish species feeds and grows in lagoon and estuarine systems, migrating to the sea for reproduction, and spawning. Fishers acknowledged the Patos Lagoon and the Plata River as the main source of mullet schools. Migration occurs from South to North and the routes vary according to climatic and oceanographic conditions (e.g., low temperatures, south winds, rainfall, currents, salinity). These conditions influence the abundance of mullets (and therefore fisheries success), their migration and stops in locations such as beaches, rocky shores, and islands. According to fishers, mullet spawning occurs throughout the coast of the Santa Catarina State and they feed in lagoons and riverine systems but also out at sea during migration. In conclusion, fishers possess a detailed knowledge about mullet life cycle and they identify intra and interannual variations in migration routes, a pattern that should be considered in managing the fishery.

Butia catarinensis Noblick & Lorenzi is a small palm (approximately 2 m high when full-grown) endemic to the southern coast of Brazil. Local farmers use the fruit and pulp for various purposes, and this extractive activity complements their income. The objective of this study was to understand the relationships between local people and B. catarinensis in its natural environment. Ethnobotanical and ethnoecological data were collected through participant observation, participatory research tools and semi-structured interviews. The density of B. catarinensis was measured in two areas, each containing twelve 10 m × 20 m plots. Interviewees recognized different varieties of the palm, its phenological stages, as well as potential pollinators and seed dispersers. Eighteen different uses for the palm were registered and three different collection practices were observed, depending on the purpose for which the fruit was used. The mean density in the two areas studied ranged from 38.6 to 7.9 adults per plot. The rate of production (per hectare) can be as high as 927 kg of fruit and 190 kg of pulp. The local community can contribute to the conservation of this coastal ecosystem through extractive activities of some scale, with potential environmental, economic and socio-cultural sustainability.

Este trabalho, numa abordagem monográfica, descreve a evolução da relação humana com os recursos pesqueiros marinhos, nomeadamente a evolução da relação portuguesa e brasileira com tais recursos. A perspetiva enquadrante é a da Pesca Artesanal e Sustentabilidade das Pescas. A pesca artesanal representa uma atividade aglutinadora de valor económico e social, e serve de âncora para diversas atividades a jusante e a montante das pescas, inclusive para o setor turístico. No entanto, não é objeto de grande atenção, ou até mesmo esquecida, por oposição com o que se verifica com a pesca industrial. Em Portugal representou uma alternativa permanente à pesca longínqua, uma almofada para as oscilações ocorridas na pesca industrial, tal como se verificou aquando da restruturação da frota de pesca por altura dos choques petrolíferos ocorridos em 1973/74. No entanto, apresenta-se em decadência acentuada, com um número de efetivos reduzido e envelhecido (não consegue estimular os jovens), pouco lucrativa, e está ameaçada pela crescente regulamentação imposta pela União Europeia no âmbito da Politica Comum de Pescas (PCP), sobretudo no que diz respeito à pesca artesanal de xávega. Desvalorização similar ocorre no contexto brasileiro. Além disso, a realidade brasileira mais recente realça o valor de áreas protegidas marinhas como as Reservas Extractivistas (RESEX) e as Reservas de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (RDS) enquanto ferramentas de Conservação e Sustentabilidade. A sustentabilidade só pode ser assegurada enquanto não forem esquecidos os pescadores artesanais e de subsistência, inseridos nas suas Comunidades Piscatórias e capacitados para intervir nos processos Participativos e de Governança da Zona Costeira. Também os seus Conhecimentos Plurais e saberes locais devem ser incorporados nas soluções técnicas de gestão costeira, a par com a valorização social da própria atividade pesqueira. Por outro lado, para que a pesca artesanal possa ser assegurada em continuidade, e oferecer vantagens competitivas, é necessário que a atividade seja considerada fundamental para a conservação da natureza (devido às artes seletivas), para o desenvolvimento sustentado do setor e para o desenvolvimento local (criando emprego, sinergias e complementaridades, preservando a memória das comunidades locais). Sobretudo é necessário valorizar os produtos decorrentes desta pesca, porque os pescadores produzem um pescado de elevada qualidade e frescura, em nada inferior ao proveniente da pesca industrial, fundamental para a saúde e qualidade de vida das populações e capaz de responder às exigências dos “eco-consumidores”.

This monographic work is a about the human relation with the marine fish resources, namely the evolution of the Portuguese and Brazilian relation with these resources. The integrative approach of this work is the sustainable artisanal fishing. Artisanal fisheries represent the integration through economic and social values anchoring to upstream and downstream several other activities, namely tourism. Little, if not no attention is given to artisanal fisheries, contrary to industrial fisheries. In Portugal it represented a permanent alternative to the distant fisheries, a buffer for the oscillations such as the restructuration of the fleet in 1973/74. However, the artisanal fisheries is declining, with a decreasing number of workers, the aging of fishers, and the low profits, together with the growing amounts of rules, norms and laws such as the common fisheries policy (CFP) of the European Commission, especially on the “Arte Xávega”, an artisanal fishing style being practiced by some Portuguese. Similar devaluation in artisanal fisheries occurs in the Brazilian context. Also, the Brazilian recent reality reinforces the importance of the Extractive Reserves and the Sustainable Development Reserves as tools for conservation and sustainability. Sustainability is assured as long we care about artisanal fishing, small-scale fisheries and fishing communities by contributing to more effective strengthening of empowered participation in governance. Also the plural knowledge and the traditional and ecological knowledge of these communities should be considered in the coastal zone management together with the social valorization of artisanal fishing communities. Artisanal fisheries continuity, assuring competitive advantages for artisanal fishers is needed. The activity must be considered fundamental to nature conservation and also to the sustainable development to both the sector itself and to the local development (creating jobs, synergies and complementarities for the preservation of local memories and knowledge). Above all, in necessary to give the proper value to fish and fish products because of the high quality and freshness delivered by artisanal fishers, with the growing concerns about nutrition and human health and eco-consumers demands.