OBJECTIVE: To explore how the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic has affected the infant-feeding experiences of HIV-positive mothers in South Africa. METHODS: This was a qualitative interview study within a prospective cohort study. We purposively selected a subsample of 40 women from a larger cohort of 650 HIV-positive mothers for in-depth interviews. FINDINGS: The HIV epidemic has changed the context in which infant-feeding choices are made and implemented. HIV-positive mothers in this study - who were predominantly young, single and unemployed - were struggling to protect their decision-making autonomy. Uncertainty about the safety of breastfeeding has increased the power and influence of health workers, who now act as gatekeepers to not only this new knowledge but also to essential resources such as formula milk. Fear of disclosure of HIV status and stigma has also weakened the ability of mothers to resist entrenched family and community norms that encourage early introduction of fluids and foods and that question non-breastfeeding. Women who chose to exclusively formula feed had difficulties accessing formula milk because of inflexible policies and a lack of supplies at clinics. Limited postpartum support led to social isolation and mothers doubting their ability to care for their children. CONCLUSION: The infant-feeding experiences of HIV-positive mothers have serious implications for the operational effectiveness of programmes that aim to prevent HIV transmission from mother to child. A better understanding of how HIV is changing infant-feeding practices can inform the development of interventions to improve infant-feeding counselling and postpartum support.

OBJETIVO: Estudiar cómo ha influido la epidemia de virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) en la alimentación de los lactantes de madres seropositivas en Sudáfrica. MÉTODOS: Se llevó a cabo una encuesta con entrevistas cualitativas como parte de un estudio prospectivo de cohortes. Seleccionamos deliberadamente una submuestra de 40 mujeres a partir de una cohorte más amplia de 650 madres VIH-positivas para realizar entrevistas más detalladas. RESULTADOS: La epidemia de VIH ha trastocado el contexto de la adopción y aplicación de decisiones sobre la alimentación de los lactantes. Las madres VIH-positivas de este estudio -en su mayoría jóvenes, solteras y sin trabajo- se esforzaban por conservar su autonomía decisional. La incertidumbre existente respecto a la seguridad de la lactancia materna ha dado más poder e influencia a los trabajadores sanitarios, que actúan ahora como guardianes no sólo de esos nuevos conocimientos sino también de recursos esenciales como las preparaciones para lactantes. El temor a revelar la serología VIH y a verse estigmatizadas ha hecho que muchas mujeres cedieran más fácilmente a algunos hábitos familiares y comunitarios arraigados que fomentan la pronta introducción de líquidos y alimentos y cuestionan la decisión de no dar el pecho. Las mujeres que optan por alimentar a sus niños exclusivamente con preparaciones tienen dificultades para acceder a ellas, debido a la escasa flexibilidad de las políticas aplicadas y a la falta de suministros en los consultorios. El limitado apoyo puerperal recibido conduce a las madres a la marginación social y a dudar de su capacidad para cuidar a los hijos. CONCLUSIÓN: Las experiencias de alimentación de los lactantes de madres VIH-positivas tienen serias implicaciones para la eficacia operacional de los programas encaminados a prevenir la transmisión del VIH de la madre al hijo. Una comprensión más cabal de la influencia que está teniendo el VIH en las prácticas de alimentación de los lactantes permitirá fundamentar mejor el desarrollo de las intervenciones de mejora del asesoramiento sobre la alimentación del lactante y el apoyo puerperal.

OBJECTIF: Étudier les effets de l'épidémie d'infection par le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) sur les pratiques en matière d'allaitement des nourrissons chez les mères séropositives d'Afrique du Sud. MÉTHODES: L'article porte sur une étude qualitative par entretiens, réalisée dans le cadre d'une étude prospective de cohorte. Un sous-échantillon de 40 femmes a été sélectionné à dessein à partir d'une cohorte plus importante de 650 mères séropositives, en vue de les soumettre à des entretiens approfondis. RÉSULTATS: L'épidémie d'infection par le VIH a modifié le contexte dans lequel s'opèrent le choix et la mise en æuvre du mode d'allaitement des nourrissons. Les mères séropositives prises en compte dans cette étude, - qui étaient en majorité jeunes, seules et sans emploi - s'efforçaient de protéger leur indépendance décisionnelle. Les incertitudes quant à l'absence de risque de l'allaitement au sein ont donné plus de pouvoir et d'influence au personnel soignant, qui non seulement détient les connaissances à ce sujet, mais aussi l'accès aux ressources essentielles comme le lait artificiel. La crainte d'une révélation de leur statut à l'égard du VIH et de la stigmatisation associée affaiblit la capacité des mères à résister aux normes familiales et communautaires très arrêtées, qui encouragent l'introduction précoce de liquides et d'aliments et qui remettent en question l'allaitement artificiel dès la naissance. Les femmes qui choisissent de nourrir leur enfant avec du lait artificiel uniquement rencontrent des difficultés pour se procurer ce lait en raison de l'inflexibilité des politiques et de l'approvisionnement insuffisant des dispensaires. Le faible soutien apporté aux mères post-partum conduit à leur isolement social et les fait douter de leur capacité à s'occuper de leurs enfants. CONCLUSION: Les pratiques en matière d'allaitement des mères séropositives ont des conséquences graves sur l'efficacité opérationnelle des programmes visant à prévenir la transmission du VIH de la mère à l'enfant. Une meilleure compréhension de la manière dont l'épidémie de VIH modifie les pratiques d'allaitement peut apporter des éléments pour la mise au point d'interventions en vue d'améliorer les conseils et le soutien apportés post-partum.

Objective. To determine the prevalence of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) among Tarahumara women of reproductive age. Material and Methods. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in a representative sample of 481 women aged 12-49 years, residents of Guachochi Municipality, Chihuahua, from June to September 1998. The hemoglobin (Hb) level was measured in capillary blood using the Hemocue technique, and the serum ferritin level in capillary serum spotted on filter paper, in a sub-sample of women. Central tendency and dispersion measures were estimated; the Chisquared test was used to test differences in proportions and ANOVA and Bonferroni's test for differences in means. Results. Prevalence of anemia (mean Hb±S.D.) was 16.1% (140±16 g/l) and 25.7% (129±12 g/l) for non-pregnant and pregnant women, respectively. Pregnant women in the 3rd trimester and those who were breast-feeding their children during the first 6 months after delivery had the highest prevalence of anemia (38.5% and 42.9%, respectively). Iron deficiency was responsible for most of the anemia found in this sample. Conclusions. This study provides relevant information for the development of intervention programs to treat and prevent IDA in this ethnic group. The English version of this paper is available too at: <a HREF="http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html">http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html</a>

Objetivo. Determinar la prevalencia de anemia ferropriva en mujeres tarahumaras de edad fértil. Material y métodos. Se realizó un estudio transversal en una muestra representativa de 481 mujeres, de edades entre 12 a 49 años, residentes del municipio de Guachochi, Chihuahua, de junio a septiembre de 1998. El nivel de hemoglobina (Hb) se midió en sangre capilar mediante la técnica del Hemocue, además, en un subgrupo se midió el nivel de ferritina en suero capilar sobre papel filtro. Se obtuvieron medidas de tendencia central y de dispersión, se hicieron pruebas de ji cuadrada para diferencias de proporciones, además de ANOVA y prueba de Bonferroni para diferencias de medias. Resultados. La prevalencia de anemia (<img src="/img/revistas/spm/v43n5/6717s1.gif" align="absmiddle"> Hb±DE) fue de 16.1% (140±16 g/l) y 25.7% (129±12 g/l) para no embarazadas y embarazadas, respectivamente. Las embarazadas en el tercer trimestre y las que estaban lactando durante los primeros seis meses del postparto mostraron las más altas prevalencias de anemia (38.5% y 42.9%, respectivamente). La deficiencia de hierro fue responsable de la mayoría de los casos de anemia encontrada en esta muestra. Conclusiones. Este estudio provee información relevante para desarrollar programas de intervención para tratar y prevenir la anemia ferropriva en este grupo étnico. El texto completo en inglés de este artículo está también disponible en: <a href="http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html">http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html</a>

Objective. To determine the prevalence of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) among Tarahumara women of reproductive age. Material and Methods. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in a representative sample of 481 women aged 12-49 years, residents of Guachochi Municipality, Chihuahua, from June to September 1998. The hemoglobin (Hb) level was measured in capillary blood using the Hemocue technique, and the serum ferritin level in capillary serum spotted on filter paper, in a sub-sample of women. Central tendency and dispersion measures were estimated; the Chisquared test was used to test differences in proportions and ANOVA and Bonferroni's test for differences in means. Results. Prevalence of anemia (mean Hb±S.D.) was 16.1% (140±16 g/l) and 25.7% (129±12 g/l) for non-pregnant and pregnant women, respectively. Pregnant women in the 3rd trimester and those who were breast-feeding their children during the first 6 months after delivery had the highest prevalence of anemia (38.5% and 42.9%, respectively). Iron deficiency was responsible for most of the anemia found in this sample. Conclusions. This study provides relevant information for the development of intervention programs to treat and prevent IDA in this ethnic group. The English version of this paper is available too at: <a HREF="http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html">http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html</a>

Objetivo. Determinar la prevalencia de anemia ferropriva en mujeres tarahumaras de edad fértil. Material y métodos. Se realizó un estudio transversal en una muestra representativa de 481 mujeres, de edades entre 12 a 49 años, residentes del municipio de Guachochi, Chihuahua, de junio a septiembre de 1998. El nivel de hemoglobina (Hb) se midió en sangre capilar mediante la técnica del Hemocue, además, en un subgrupo se midió el nivel de ferritina en suero capilar sobre papel filtro. Se obtuvieron medidas de tendencia central y de dispersión, se hicieron pruebas de ji cuadrada para diferencias de proporciones, además de ANOVA y prueba de Bonferroni para diferencias de medias. Resultados. La prevalencia de anemia (<img src="http:/img/fbpe/spm/v43n5/6717s1.gif" align="absmiddle"> Hb±DE) fue de 16.1% (140±16 g/l) y 25.7% (129±12 g/l) para no embarazadas y embarazadas, respectivamente. Las embarazadas en el tercer trimestre y las que estaban lactando durante los primeros seis meses del postparto mostraron las más altas prevalencias de anemia (38.5% y 42.9%, respectivamente). La deficiencia de hierro fue responsable de la mayoría de los casos de anemia encontrada en esta muestra. Conclusiones. Este estudio provee información relevante para desarrollar programas de intervención para tratar y prevenir la anemia ferropriva en este grupo étnico. El texto completo en inglés de este artículo está también disponible en: <a href="http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html">http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html</a>

INTRODUÇÃO: Pesquisas sobre a amamentação e a questão do trabalho da mulher são de difícil comparabilidade. A prática de amamentar entre mulheres com um emprego formal no Brasil tem sido pouco estudada, em que pesem as mudanças havidas como a extensão da licença maternidade para 120 dias. Decidiu-se realizar estudo com o objetivo de descrever o padrão de amamentação de mulheres empregadas em empresas, as limitações que elas enfrentam e que fatores contribuem para que elas possam conciliar trabalho e amamentação. MATERIAL E MÉTODO: Estudo exploratório realizado em 13 indústrias de São Paulo em 1994, onde todas as mulheres no terceiro trimestre da gestação (76) foram entrevistadas e reentrevistadas (69) na volta ao trabalho (em torno de 5,4 meses pós-parto). RESULTADOS: Iniciaram a amamentação 97% das mulheres, apresentando uma duração mediana de 150 dias; quanto ao Aleitamento Materno Exclusivo, a duração mediana foi de 10 dias, e à Amamentação Predominante, a mediana foi de 70 dias. As mulheres de melhor nível socioeconômico e as que tinham creche no local de trabalho ou sala de coleta e estocagem de leite materno, foram as que amamentaram por mais tempo. A possibilidade de flexibilizar seu horário e não trabalhar na linha de produção também mostraram ser fatores significantes que levam as mulheres dessas indústrias a amamentar mais. CONCLUSÕES: A licença-maternidade tem sido útil e usada pela maioria das trabalhadoras para amamentar, mas há outros fatores que são fundamentais para que a manutenção da lactação seja facilitada, tais como aqueles que permitem a proximidade mãe-criança e/ou a retirada periódica de leite materno durante a jornada de trabalho.

INTRODUCTION: Studies carried out on breastfeeding and working women are difficult to compare. Breastfeeding practices among formally employed women in Brazil have not been much studied, despite important changes in public policies such as the extension of maternity leave to 120 days. OBJECTIVES: A description of breastfeeding patterns among women employed in factories and the constraints and opportunities involved in conciliating breastfeeding and work. MATERIAL AND METHODS: An exploratory study was carried out in 13 factories in S. Paulo city in 1994, where all women in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy were interviewed (76), and re-interviewed (69) when they went back to work (around 5,4 months after delivery). RESULTS: Breastfeeding initiation was found in 97% of women and the median duration was 150 days. The exclusive breastfeeding and predominant breastfeeding rates were, respectively, 10 and 70 days of median duration. Higher socio-economic status and nursery facilities and the existence of a place in which to extract and store the mother's milk at the workplace were factors associated with longer duration of breastfeeding. Other factors such as flex-time and work out of the production-line also showed a significant relation to longer duration of breastfeeding in the factories studied. CONCLUSION: Maternity leave is widely taken advantage of and highly benefitial for the majority of working women as regards breastfeeding, but other factors are important in maitaining lactation, such as circunstances which permit closer mother-child contact and/or the extraction of human milk during the working day.

INTRODUÇÃO: Pesquisas sobre a amamentação e a questão do trabalho da mulher são de difícil comparabilidade. A prática de amamentar entre mulheres com um emprego formal no Brasil tem sido pouco estudada, em que pesem as mudanças havidas como a extensão da licença maternidade para 120 dias. Decidiu-se realizar estudo com o objetivo de descrever o padrão de amamentação de mulheres empregadas em empresas, as limitações que elas enfrentam e que fatores contribuem para que elas possam conciliar trabalho e amamentação. MATERIAL E MÉTODO: Estudo exploratório realizado em 13 indústrias de São Paulo em 1994, onde todas as mulheres no terceiro trimestre da gestação (76) foram entrevistadas e reentrevistadas (69) na volta ao trabalho (em torno de 5,4 meses pós-parto). RESULTADOS: Iniciaram a amamentação 97% das mulheres, apresentando uma duração mediana de 150 dias; quanto ao Aleitamento Materno Exclusivo, a duração mediana foi de 10 dias, e à Amamentação Predominante, a mediana foi de 70 dias. As mulheres de melhor nível socioeconômico e as que tinham creche no local de trabalho ou sala de coleta e estocagem de leite materno, foram as que amamentaram por mais tempo. A possibilidade de flexibilizar seu horário e não trabalhar na linha de produção também mostraram ser fatores significantes que levam as mulheres dessas indústrias a amamentar mais. CONCLUSÕES: A licença-maternidade tem sido útil e usada pela maioria das trabalhadoras para amamentar, mas há outros fatores que são fundamentais para que a manutenção da lactação seja facilitada, tais como aqueles que permitem a proximidade mãe-criança e/ou a retirada periódica de leite materno durante a jornada de trabalho.

INTRODUCTION: Studies carried out on breastfeeding and working women are difficult to compare. Breastfeeding practices among formally employed women in Brazil have not been much studied, despite important changes in public policies such as the extension of maternity leave to 120 days. OBJECTIVES: A description of breastfeeding patterns among women employed in factories and the constraints and opportunities involved in conciliating breastfeeding and work. MATERIAL AND METHODS: An exploratory study was carried out in 13 factories in S. Paulo city in 1994, where all women in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy were interviewed (76), and re-interviewed (69) when they went back to work (around 5,4 months after delivery). RESULTS: Breastfeeding initiation was found in 97% of women and the median duration was 150 days. The exclusive breastfeeding and predominant breastfeeding rates were, respectively, 10 and 70 days of median duration. Higher socio-economic status and nursery facilities and the existence of a place in which to extract and store the mother's milk at the workplace were factors associated with longer duration of breastfeeding. Other factors such as flex-time and work out of the production-line also showed a significant relation to longer duration of breastfeeding in the factories studied. CONCLUSION: Maternity leave is widely taken advantage of and highly benefitial for the majority of working women as regards breastfeeding, but other factors are important in maitaining lactation, such as circunstances which permit closer mother-child contact and/or the extraction of human milk during the working day.