Abstract Natural resources emerge as an essential and alternative tool for controlling parasitic agents. The present study was carried out to evaluate in vitro and in vivo effect of Persea americana fruit extract (PAFE) on helminthiasis and coccidiosis. In vitro, anthelmintic activity was performed using PAFE against Allolobophora caliginose. PAFE elicited significant anthelmintic activity comparable to mebendazole with the lesser time taken to paralysis and death for 200 mg/mL. In vitro anticoccidial activity of PAFE, amprolium, phenol, DettolTM, and formalin were studied after incubation with unsporulated oocysts. PAFE was able to significantly inhibit oocyst sporulation in a dose-dependent manner. A total 35 male mice were divided into seven groups. At day 0, all groups except first and second groups were infected with 1×103 E. papillata. Group 1 served as control. Group 2 served as uninfected-treated one. Group 3 was considered an infected-untreated group. After 60 min of infection, groups 4, 5, and 6 were treated with PAFE. Group 7 was treated with amprolium. However, not at par with amprolium, PAFE showed a good anticoccidial activity adjudged based on a significant change in body weight gain, feed intake, oocysts output, and content of carbohydrates and protein. Therefore, PAFE exhibits powerful anthelmintic and anticoccidial effects.

Abstract In every country in the globe, malaria is still regarded as a health risk. In terms of therapeutic medicines against parasites, medicinal plants are a promising source, although the types and concentrations of their active compounds can vary depending on the environment. In this study, the effect of Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaf extracts (ECE) collected from two different habitats (sandy and muddy) on the antioxidant and antimalarial activity was examined. Phytochemical analysis of ECE from muddy (ECEM) and sandy (ECES) habitats were compared. ECEM contained 13 expected compounds while ECES contained only 10 compounds. This was evidenced through infrared spectroscopy. Also, ECEM contained more phenolics and flavonoids than ECES as well as processes higher antioxidant activity that reached 55%. Plasmodium chabaudi-infected mice were treated with ECEM and ECES and the parasitemia was compared. ECEM could significantly suppress the parasitemia by approximately 84% and also was able to decrease the spleen index better than EXCS. Moreover, ECEM was better than ECES in ameliorating the induced decrease in erythrocyte number and hemoglobin content in mice infected with P. chabaudi. It is possible to use E. camaldulensis, which grows in muddy environments, as an antimalarial drug with the largest efficacy gradients.

Abstract Coccidiosis and helminthiasis are two parasitic diseases that harm both health and the economy. The present study aimed to assess the effect of Azadirachta indica leaf extracts (AILE) as an anti-parasitic modulator during murine coccidiosis as well as helminthic infection. Phytochemical analysis using FT-IR showed the presence of eleven compounds. A dose-dependent efficacy was observed in all experiments. At the highest concentration (200 mg/mL), time consumed to induce paralysis and death for worms was recorded at 9.329 ± 2.183 and 10.024 ± 1.542 min, respectively. Histological study revealed conspicuous deformity of surface architecture in all treated worms. SEM also revealed cuticular shrinkage of the body surface in all treated worms. In vitro study showed that incubation with AILE (100 mg/mL) for 96 hr inhibited sporulation by approximately 60%. AILE (50 and 25 mg/mL), amprolium, DettolTM, phenol, and formalin-induced variable inhibition levels at 96 hr of 28%, 44%, 37.33%, 81.33%, 89.33%, and 0% respectively. In addition, IC50 of AILE was obtained at 66.214 µg/mL with a percentage of antioxidant activity to be 74.76 ± 2.23. Our results indicate that AILE exhibits powerful anthelmintic and anticoccidial activities and it could be exploited further for the development of a novel therapeutic agent.

ABSTRACT: Coccidian infection may promote the proliferation of gut bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Bacterial infections by members of this family in rabbits can induce a negative impact on their health and lead to high mortality, especially in young individuals. This study aimed to investigate the effect of prebiotic treatment on Escherichia coli and Salmonella species during natural intestinal coccidiosis in rabbits. Forty-five rabbits were selected from a rabbit farm in Beni-Suef, Egypt. Out of the 45 rabbits, 15 were coccidia-free and used as the negative control group (NC group) and 30 were naturally infected with coccidia. The infected rabbits were randomly divided into two equal groups, the positive control group (PC) and the prebiotic treated group (PT) which was orally treated with prebiotic for 8 successive days. Faecal oocyst count was assessed daily during the course of treatment. At 8 days post-treatment, 5 rabbits from each group were euthanised for the microbiological examination of the intestinal tract. On day 8 post treatment, the PT group showed a significant (P<0.05) reduction in the oocyst count (5.33 x103 ± 0.89) with a significant (P<0.05) decline in the prevalence of E. coli and Salmonella (66.7 % and 26.4%, respectively). The PC group showed highly a significant oocyst count (21.67x103 ± 0.82 OPG), with a significant increase in the prevalence of E. coli and Salmonella (86.7 % and 46.7 %, respectively). The NC group remained coccidian free and exhibited only E. coli with no Salmonella infection. The in vitro susceptibility test showed that E. coli isolates were highly resistant to most of the tested antimicrobials while Salmonella isolates showed variable resistance profiles. In conclusion, the prebiotic treatment significantly reduced the prevalence of E. coli and Salmonella infections coexisted with intestinal coccidiosis naturally infected rabbits.

Resumo O conhecimento da fauna de parasitas dos peixes do Golfo Árabe é escasso. Atualmente, apenas relatórios dispersos de diferentes locais são conhecidos para ecto e endoparasitas. Portanto, o presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar as especies digenéticas que infectam uma das espécies economicamente mais importantes do Golfo Arábico, o peixe-cabra rosado Parupeneus rubescens . Uma espécie de plagiorquídeo foi descrita, pertencente à família Gorgoderidae e foi denominada Phyllodistomum vaili Ho, Bray, Cutmore, Ward & Cribb, 2014, com base em suas propriedades morfológicas e morfométricas. A fim de classificar e caracterizar com precisão essa espécie de plagiorquídeo, a análise molecular foi realizada usando as regiões nucleares do gene 18S e 28S rRNA, revelando que a atual espécie de plagiorchídeo estava associada a outras espécies pertencentes à família Gorgoderidae e, profundamente incorporada ao gênero Phyllodistomum , intimamente relacionado ao P. vaili descrito anteriormente (gb | KF013187.1, KF013173.1). O presente estudo revelou, portanto, que a espécie Phyllodistomum vailli é o primeiro relato como endoparasita do peixe-cabra rosado que habita o Golfo Arábico.

Abstract Knowledge of the Arabian Gulf fish’s parasite fauna is very poor. Until recently, only scattered reports from different locations are known for ecto- and endoparasites. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the digenean species that infects one of the most economically fish species in the Arabian Gulf, the rosy goatfish Parupeneus rubescens . One plagiorchiid species has been described, belonging to the Gorgoderidae family, and has been named as Phyllodistomum vaili Ho, Bray, Cutmore, Ward & Cribb, 2014 based on its morphological and morphometric characteristics. In order to accurately classify and characterize this plagiorchiid species, molecular analysis was carried out using both nuclear 18S and 28S rRNA gene regions and revealed that the present plagiorchiid species was associated with other species belonging to the Gorgoderidae family and deeply embedded in the Phyllodistomum genus, closely related to the previously described P. vaili (gb| KF013187.1, KF013173.1). The present study therefore revealed that the species Phyllodistomum is the first account as endoparasites from the rosy goatfish inhabiting the Arabian Gulf.

Abstract Eimeriosis is caused by a protozoan parasite of the genus Eimeria and infection affecting most domestic animal species. The aim of this research was to comprehend the impact of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) on eimeriosis induced by Eimeria papillata in mouse jejunum, and how they work as antioxidants and anti-apoptotic agents against eimeriosis. The numbers of meronts, gamonts, and developing oocysts of E. papillata reduced after the infected mice were treated with the SeNPs. The levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), and other oxidative stress-related molecules, such as glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), were assayed. E. papillata was able to change the redox status of the jejunal cells; this was confirmed by the elevation of the MDA and NO levels, and the decrease of the GSH levels and the activities of the antioxidant enzymes CAT and SOD. SeNP treatment significantly reversed this disturbance of the redox status. The expression levels of the apoptotic markers Bax and caspase-3 in the jejunal samples were evaluated using qRT-PCR. The SeNPs decreased the Bax and caspase-3 expression after being administered to the E. papillata-infected mice. Collectively, the SeNPs demonstrated antioxidant and anti-apoptotic activities against murine eimeriosis.

Resumo Os produtos naturais são agentes ecologicamente corretos que podem ser usados contra doenças parasitárias. As espécies de Eimeria causam eimeriose em muitas aves e mamíferos e a resistência aos medicamentos disponíveis usados no tratamento da eimeriose está emergindo. Foram investigadas as atividades in vitro e in vivo dos extratos de folhas de Morus nigra (MNLE) contra esporulação de oocistos e infecção de camundongos com Eimeria papillata. A análise fitoquímica do MNLE mostrou a presença de sete compostos e os efeitos in vitro do MNLE, amprolium, DettolTM, formalina, etanol e fenol foram estudados após incubação com oocistos antes da esporulação. Além disso, a infecção de camundongos com E. papillata induziu uma produção de oocistos de aproximadamente 12 × 105 oocistos / g de fezes. O MNLE reduziu significativamente a produção de oocistos para aproximadamente 86%, e o número total de estágios parasitários no jejuno em aproximadamente 87%. Além disso, a redução no número de células caliciformes no jejuno de camundongos aumentou após o tratamento. Esses achados sugerem que a amoreira exibia uma poderosa atividade anticoccidiana.

Abstract Natural products are ecofriendly agents that can be used against parasitic diseases. Eimeria species cause eimeriosis in many birds and mammals and resistance to available medications used in the treatment of eimeriosis is emerging. We investigated the in vitro and in vivo activity of Morus nigra leaf extracts (MNLE) against sporulation of oocysts and infection of mice with Eimeria papillata. Phytochemical analysis of MNLE showed the presence of seven compounds and the in vitro effects of MNLE, amprolium, DettolTM, formalin, ethanol, and phenol were studied after incubation with oocysts before sporulation. Furthermore, infection of mice with E. papillata induced an oocyst output of approximately 12 × 105 oocysts/g of feces. MNLE significantly decreased oocyst output to approximately 86% and the total number of parasitic stages in the jejunum by approximately 87%. In addition, the reduction in the number of goblet cells in the jejuna of mice was increased after treatment. These findings suggest that mulberry exhibited powerful anticoccidial activity.

Resumo Os siganídeos são os peixes marinhos mais importantes distribuídos ao longo da costa africana. Portanto, o presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar a fauna de parasitas infectando uma das espécies mais importantes de peixes para maricultura no Mar Vermelho, o peixe-coelho Siganus rivulatus. Uma espécie de acantocéfalo foi isolada da região posterior do intestino de peixes pertencentes à família Neoechinorhynchidae, e denominadas Neoechinorhynchus macrospinosus Amin & Nahhas, 1994, com base em suas características morfológicas e morfométricas. A fim de determinar a posição taxonômica precisa dessa espécie de acantocéfalo, a análise filogenética molecular foi realizada com base nas sequências parciais da região do gene 18S rDNA e revelou que essa espécie estava associada a uma identidade próxima de até 71% para outras espécies pertencentes a família Neoechinorhynchidae e profundamente enraizada no gênero Neoechinorhynchus, intimamente relacionada a Neoechinorhynchus sp., N. mexicoensis, and N. golvani descrito anteriormente com percentual de identidade de 95,14, 93,59, 93,59%, respectivamente. Portanto, o presente estudo fornece uma melhor compreensão sobre o status taxonômico de N. macrospinosus com base no 18S rDNA que pode ser útil para obter uma avaliação adequada da biodiversidade.

Abstract Siganids are the most important marine fish distributed along the African coast. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate parasite fauna infects one of the most important mariculture fish species in the Red Sea, the Rabbit fish Siganus rivulatus. One acanthocephalan species has been isolated from the posterior region of fish intestine, belonging to the Neoechinorhynchidae family, and named as Neoechinorhynchus macrospinosus Amin & Nahhas, 1994 based on its morphological and morphometric features. In order to determine the accurate taxonomic position of this acanthocephalan species, molecular phylogenetic analysis was carried out based on the partial sequences of 18S rDNA gene region. The obtained data revealed that this species was associated with a close identity ˃71% for other species belonging to the Neoechinorhynchidae family. In addition, the recovered species deeply embedded in the Neoechinorhynchus genus, closely related to the previously described Neoechinorhynchus sp., N. mexicoensis, and N. golvani with identity percent of 95.14, 93.59, 93.59%, respectively. Therefore, the present study provide a better understanding about the taxonomic status of N. macrospinosus based on 18S rDNA that can be useful for achieving a proper assessment of biodiversity.

Resumo Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. é descrito a partir do sangue da víbora em escamas e quilhas serrilhadas, Echis pyramidum, capturada na Arábia Saudita. Cinco de dez espécimes de víbora examinadas (50%) foram encontradas infectadas com Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. com nível de parasitemia de 20% a 30%. A infecção foi restrita apenas aos eritrócitos. Foram observadas duas formas morfologicamente diferentes de estágios intra-eritrocíticos: gamontes de tamanho pequeno e madura. As formas menores de gamontes apresentaram média de 10,7 × 3,5 μm. Os gamontes maduros apresentaram forma de salsicha, com pequenos polos recurvados, medindo 16,3 × 4,2 μm, em média. Os eritrócitos infectados estavam aumentados de tamanho; seus núcleos encontravam-se deformados e, algumas vezes, deslocados de sua posição central, quando comparados às células normais não-infectadas. Foram observados estágios merogônicos em células endoteliais pulmonares e nas células do parênquima hepático. Os merontes maduros apresentavam 17,8 × 13,6 µm e continham merozoítos em forma de banana com tamanho médio de ~ 15 × 2 µm. A análise filogenética baseada nas sequências SSU rDNA agrupou Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n com Hepatozoon spp. detectados em répteis de várias regiões geográficas. Por meio de análises morfológicas e moleculares com espécies intimamente relacionadas, demonstrou-se a singularidade dessa nova espécie de Hepatozoon.

Abstract Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. is described from the blood of the Egyptian saw-scaled viper, Echis pyramidum, captured from Saudi Arabia. Five out of ten viper specimens examined (50%) were found infected with Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n. with parasitaemia level ranged from 20-30%. The infection was restricted only to the erythrocytes. Two morphologically different forms of intraerythrocytic stages were observed; small and mature gamonts. The small ganomt with average size of 10.7 × 3.5 μm. Mature gamont was sausage-shaped with recurved poles measuring 16.3 × 4.2 μm in average size. Infected erythrocytes were hypertrophied; their nuclei were deformed and sometimes displaced from their central position in the normal uninfected cell. Merogonic stages were observed in the lung endothelial cell and the liver parenchyma cells. Mature meront was 17.8 × 13.6 µm and contained banana-shaped merozoites with average size of ~15 × 2 µm. Phylogenetic analysis based on the SSU rDNA sequence clustered Hepatozoon pyramidumi sp. n with previously sequenced Hepatozoon spp., most of them infected reptilian hosts without geographic consideration. The morphological and molecular comparison with closely related species proved the taxonomic uniqueness and novelty of the present form.

Abstract Cadmium, present in the environment, accumulates in different organs of animals and humans, and has deleterious effects on the kidney. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of the methanolic extract of Pleurotus ostreatus in comparison with silymarin on renal function in cadmium-intoxicated rats for five days. Rats intraperitoneally injected with cadmium chloride (1 mg/kg). These rats were treated with either P. ostreatus extract (200 mg/kg) or silymarin to investigate the protective effects of the extract. Cadmium treatment induced significant histopathological impairments and increased cadmium levels, DNA fragmentation, and renal oxidative stress. However, treatment with P. ostreatus extract or silymarin improved the pathology, reduced the level of cadmium in renal tissue, and restored DNA fragmentation. In addition, a significant reduction in lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species levels, and a significant increase in the levels of glutathione and catalase activity were observed. Thus, protective effects of P. ostreatus extract to its components. Chromatographic analysis of the P. ostreatus confirmed the presence of five phenolics (gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, propyl gallate, and cinnamic acid) that exhibit strong antioxidant properties as free radical scavengers. Therefore, our findings demonstrate that treatment with P. ostreatus extract protects against cadmium-induced nephrotoxicity in female rats.

Resumo O presente estudo parasitológico foi realizado para investigar os helmintos parasitos que infectam o peixe imperador Lethrinus lentjan, que habita a cidade de Hurghada no Golfo de Suez, Mar Vermelho, no Egito. Larvas de terceiro estágio de parasitos nematoides foram isoladas do intestino e da cavidade do corpo do peixe examinado. Microscopia eletrônica de luz e de varredura revelou que este parasita pertence à família Anisakidae dentro do gênero Pseudoterranova. A espécie atual é denominada Pseudoterranova decipiens baseada na presença de abertura triangular da boca com dentes proeminentes chatos e inchaços moles da cutícula, esôfago muscular longo, poro ventralmente excretor e fenda transversal estreita da abertura anal seguida por um mucron curto. As características morfológicas desta espécie foram confirmadas pela análise molecular da região do gene 18S rDNA do presente parasito. Demonstrou uma identidade próxima ≥89% com taxa sob família Anisakidae, 85% com Raphidascarididae, e 79-84% com Toxocaridae. Uma comparação genética preliminar entre a sequência genética do presente parasito e outras espécies de oxiurídeos coloca-o como um taxon irmão putativo para outros Pseudoterranova descritos anteriormente. Este estudo demonstra que a região do gene 18S rDNA de Pseudoterranova decipiens produz uma sequência única que confirma sua posição taxonômica em Anisakidae.

Abstract The current parasitological study was carried out to investigate helminth parasites infecting the Red spot emperor Lethrinus lentjan inhabiting Hurghada City at the Gulf of Suez, Red Sea, Egypt. Third-stage larvae of nematode parasite was isolated from the intestine as well as body cavity of the examined fish. Light and scanning electron microscopy revealed that this parasite belonged to Anisakidae family within the genus Pseudoterranova. The present species is named Pseudoterranova decipiens based on the presence of triangular mouth aperture with prominent boring teeth and soft swellings of the cuticle, long muscular esophagus, ventrally excretory pore, and narrow transverse slit of anal opening followed by a short mucron. The morphological characteristics of this species were confirmed by molecular analysis of 18S rDNA gene region of the present parasite. It demonstrated a close identity ≥89% with taxa under family Anisakidae, 85% with Raphidascarididae, and 79-84% with Toxocaridae. A preliminary genetic comparison between gene sequence of the present parasite and other oxyurid species placeed it as a putative sister taxon to other Pseudoterranova decipiens described previously. This study demonstrated that the 18S rDNA gene region of Pseudoterranova decipiens yielded a unique sequence that confirmed its taxonomic position in Anisakidae.

Resumo A eimeriose é um problema global de saúde avícola. No presente estudo, investigou-se o papel dos extratos de folhas de Salvadora persica (SE) contra a eimeriose murina induzida por Eimeria papillata. A infecção induziu uma produção de oocistos de 6242 ± 731 oocistos/g de fezes. Após o tratamento com 300 mg⁄kg SE, os oocistos eliminados nas fezes diminuíram em aproximadamente 3 vezes. Além disso, o número total de E. papillata no estágio parasitário diminuiu nos jejunos de camundongos após o tratamento com SE. Da mesma forma, o SE reduziu significativamente o número de células apoptóticas em aproximadamente 2 vezes no jejuno infectado. O estudo mostrou que o SE melhorou as alterações na glutationa, malonaldeído e catalase devido à infecção por E. papillata. Finalmente, o SE regulou os genes das citocinas, interleucina (IL) -1β, IL-6, interferon-γ e fator de necrose tumoral α, e os genes apoptóticos, linfoma-2, Bax e Caspase-3. Assim, o SE protegeu os jejunos das lesões induzidas por E. papillata e pode ter potencial valor terapêutico como aditivo alimentar durante a eimeriose.

Abstract Eimeriosis is a global poultry health problem. In the current study, we investigated the role of Salvadora persica leaf extracts (SE) against murine eimeriosis induced by Eimeria papillata. The infection induced an oocyst output of 6242 ± 731 oocysts/g feces. After treatment with 300 mg⁄kg SE, the oocysts expelled in feces decreased by approximately 3-fold. In addition, the total number of E. papillata in the parasitic stage decreased in the jejunum of mice after treatment with SE. In addition, SE significantly reduced the number of apoptotic cells by approximately 2-fold in the infected jejunum. SE ameliorated the changes in glutathione, malondialdehyde, and catalase due to E. papillata infection. Finally, SE regulated the cytokine genes, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, interferon-γ, and tumor necrosis factor-α, and the apoptotic genes, B-cell lymphoma-2, Bax, and Caspase-3. SE protects the jejunum from E. papillata induced injury and may have potential therapeutic value as a food additive during eimeriosis.

Resumo Quarenta espécimes do peixe cardinal Apogon exostigma da Narrowstripe foram examinados para identificar helmintos gastrointestinais, destes 62,5% foram infectados com um novo parasito larval cestóide tripanorrinquídeo. A morfologia de seu estágio larval foi estudada na microscopia de luz e eletrônica de varredura. Os dados revelaram larvas plerocercoides caracterizadas por uma forma piriforme com um corpo revestido por microtrícinos proeminentes; o escolex acraspedótico tinha quatro sobreposições; quatro tentáculos se projetavam através da pars botridialis; a armadura dos tentáculos era homeocante, homeomorfa e consistia de ganchos tentaculares em forma de espinhos, em forma de falcão; quatro bulbos ovais em pars bulbosa; e apêndice curto na extremidade terminal do corpo. A análise molecular das sequências de RNAr 18S verificou a taxonomia desse parasita e apoiou sua morfologia. Descobrimos que havia uma identidade próxima (até 87%) com espécies alternativas obtidas para comparação do GenBank. Os dados também mostraram que houve altos escores de brusone e baixos valores de divergência entre este parasita e outras espécies de Tentaculariidae. A análise filética mostrou que as sequências de parasitas em conjunto com os dados existentes colocam esta espécie de tripanorimidídeo entre os Tentaculariidae. Esta espécie está profundamente enraizada no gênero Nybelinia, tendo relações próximas com Nybelinia queenslandensis como um putativo táxon irmão.

Abstract Forty specimens of the Narrowstripe cardinal fish Apogon exostigma were examined for gastrointestinal helminthes, and 62.5% were infected with a new trypanorhynchid larval cestode parasite. The morphology of its larval stage was studied based on light and scanning electron microscopy. The data revealed plerocercoid larvae characterized by a pyriform body lined with prominent microtriches; the acraspedote scolex had four overlapping bothridia; four tentacles protruded through the pars bothridialis; the armature of the tentacles was homeocanthous, homeomorphous, and consisted of falcate compact rose-thorn-shaped tentacular hooks; four oval-shaped bulbs in pars bulbosa; and short appendix at terminal end of the body. Molecular analysis of the 18S rRNA sequences verified the taxonomy of this parasite and supported its morphology. We discovered that there was a close identity (up to 87%) with alternative species obtained for comparison from GenBank. The data also showed that there were high blast scores and low divergence values between this parasite and other Tentaculariidae species. The phyletic analysis showed that parasite sequences in conjunction with existing data places this trypanorhynchid species among the Tentaculariidae. This species is deeply embedded within genus Nybelinia with close relationships to Nybelinia queenslandensis as a putative sister taxon.

Background Snake venoms are synthesized and stored in venom glands. Most venoms are complex mixtures of several proteins, peptides, enzymes, toxins and non-protein components. In the present study, we investigated the oxidative stress and apoptosis in rat liver cells provoked by Naja haje crude injection (LD50) after four hours.Methods Wistar rats were randomly divided into two groups, the control group was intraperitoneally injected with saline solution while LD50-dose envenomed group was intraperitoneally injected with venom at a dose of 0.025 μg/kg of body weight. Animals were killed four hours after the injection. Lipid peroxidation, nitric oxide and glutathione levels were measured as oxidative markers in serum and liver homogenate. In addition, liver function parameters and activities of antioxidant enzymes were determined.ResultsN. haje crude venom (0.025 μg/kg of body weight) enhanced lipid peroxidation and nitric oxide production in both serum and liver with concomitant reduction in glutathione, catalase, glutathione reductase and glutathione-S-transferase activities. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities were significantly increased in liver of envenomed rats. These findings were associated with apoptosis induction in the liver. In addition, N. haje crude venom caused hepatic injury as indicated by histopathological changes in the liver tissue with an elevation in total bilirubin, serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, and alkaline phosphatase.Conclusions Based on the present results, it can hypothesized that N. haje crude venom is a potent inducer of toxin-mediated hepatotoxicity associated with apoptosis in the liver.

A new ceratomyxid parasite was examined for taxonomic identification, upon being found infecting the gall bladder of Hemiodus microlepis (Teleostei: Hemiodontidae), a freshwater teleost collected from the Amazon River, Brazil. Light and transmission electron microscopy revealed elongated crescent-shaped spores constituted by two asymmetrical shell valves united along a straight sutural line, each possessing a lateral projection. The spores body measured 5.2 ± 0.4 µm (n = 25) in length and 35.5 ± 0.9 µm (n = 25) in total thickness. The lateral projections were asymmetric, one measuring 18.1 ± 0.5 µm (n = 25) in thickness and the other measuring 17.5 ± 0.5 µm (n = 25) in thickness. Two equal-sized subspherical polar capsules measuring 2.2 ± 0.3 µm in diameter were located at the same level, each possessing a polar filament with 5-6 coils. The sporoplasm was binucleate. Considering the morphometric data analyzed from the microscopic observations, as well as the host species and its geographical location, this paper describes a new myxosporean species, herein named Ceratomyxa microlepis sp. nov.; therefore representing the first description of a freshwater ceratomyxid from the South American region.