Models are important components in scientific activity, but their functions are divergent among the various schools of philosophy of science and epistemology. Schools such as realism and anti-realism discuss the importance of models, placing them at different levels. At the same time, it is essential to understand the use of models as aids in science teaching. The realism/anti-realism debate is not a mere epistemological curiosity, but something that has consequences for school science, understood as a process of didactic transposition that, of necessity, relies on idealizations. Solutions to the problem are presented, including a focus on didactic transpositions and the historiography of science.

Los modelos son componentes importantes en la actividad científica, pero sus funciones son divergentes entre las distintas corrientes de la filosofía de la ciencia y la epistemología. Corrientes como el realismo y el antirrealismo discuten la importancia de los modelos, situándolos en diferentes niveles. Al mismo tiempo, es esencial comprender el uso de modelos como subsidios en la enseñanza de las ciencias. El debate realismo/antirrealismo no representa una mera curiosidad epistemológica, sino algo que tiene consecuencias para la ciencia escolar, entendida como un proceso de transposición didáctica que, por necesidad, se apoya en idealizaciones. Se presentan soluciones al problema, incluyendo un enfoque en las transposiciones didácticas y la historiografía de la ciencia.

Os modelos são importantes componentes na atividade científica, porém suas funções são divergentes diante das várias vertentes da filosofia da ciência e epistemologia. Correntes como o realismo e antirrealismo discutem a importância dos modelos, colocando-os em patamares distintos. Ao mesmo tempo, é imprescindível compreender a visão sobre o uso dos modelos enquanto subsídios no ensino de ciências. O debate realismo/anti-realismo não representa uma mera curiosidade epistemológica, mas algo que têm consequências para a ciência escolar, entendida como um processo de transposição didática que, por necessidade, apóia-se em idealizações. Saídas para o problema são apresentadas, incluindo um foco nas transposições didáticas e na historiografia das ciências.

Resumo O trabalho pedagógico remoto emergencial foi implementado em muitas escolas do Brasil durante a pandemia da Covid-19, como forma de diminuir os contatos entre indivíduos e, consequentemente, diminuir a taxa de transmissão da doença, mantendo aulas e atividades didáticas. Em muitas situações, professoras e professores realizaram atividades que descaracterizam sua identidade docente e conflitam com atividades domésticas, produzindo mal-estar e sofrimento. Em pesquisa de coorte em duas fases, o sofrimento psicológico de professores e professoras da Educação Básica foram analisados em função da quantidade de trabalho remoto, do gênero, da quantidade de trabalho doméstico e da experiência prévia. O trabalho remoto emergencial produziu efeitos na Ansiedade-estado, Afeto negativo e Estresse percebido − e essas respostas foram moderadas pela experiência prévia. Mulheres apresentaram maiores respostas que homens, um efeito mediado principalmente pela quantidade de trabalho doméstico realizada pela professora. Os participantes referenciaram principalmente dimensões laborais negativas e dimensões afetivas quando levados a pensar sobre o trabalho remoto, com menor saturação de respostas relacionadas a dimensões laborais positivas, à aprendizagem e a questões político-econômicas. Esses resultados sugerem que o trabalho remoto emergencial exacerba o estresse docente, apontando para precarização do trabalho docente e necessidade de implementação de políticas que mitiguem esses impactos.

Abstract Emergency remote pedagogical work was implemented in many schools in Brazil during the COVID-19 pandemic, as a way to reduce contacts between individuals and, consequently, reduce the rate of disease transmission, maintaining classes and educational activities. In many situations, teachers and teachers carried out activities that mischaracterize their teaching identity and conflict with domestic activities, producing discomfort and suffering. In a two-phase cohort study, the psychological suffering of Basic Education teachers were analyzed as a function of the amount of remote work, gender, the amount of housework and previous experience. Emergency remote work had effects on State Anxiety, Negative Affect and Perceived Stress − and these responses were moderated by previous experience. Women had higher responses than men, an effect mediated mainly by the amount of housework performed by the teacher. Participants mainly referred to negative work dimensions and affective dimensions when led to think about remote work, with less saturation of answers related to positive work dimensions, learning and political-economic issues. These results suggest that emergency remote work exacerbates teacher stress, pointing to the precariousness of teaching work and the need to implement policies that mitigate these impacts.

Resumen El trabajo pedagógico remoto de emergencia se implementó en muchas escuelas de Brasil durante la pandemia Covid-19, como una forma de reducir los contactos entre las personas y, en consecuencia, disminuir la tasa de transmisión de la enfermedad, manteniendo las clases y actividades educativas. En muchas situaciones, profesoras y profesores realizaron actividades que distorsionan su identidad docente y entran en conflicto con las actividades domésticas, produciendo malestar y sufrimiento. En un estudio de cohorte de dos fases, se analizó el sufrimiento psicológico de los docentes de Educación Básica en función de la cantidad de trabajo remoto, de género, de la cantidad de tareas domésticas y de la experiencia previa. El trabajo remoto de emergencia tuvo efectos sobre la Ansiedad-estado, el Afecto negativo y el Estrés percibido - y estas respuestas fueron moderadas por la experiencia previa. Las mujeres tuvieron respuestas más altas que los hombres, efecto mediado principalmente por la cantidad de tareas domésticas realizadas por las profesoras. Los participantes se refirieron principalmente a las dimensiones negativas del trabajo y las dimensiones afectivas cuando se les indujo a pensar en el trabajo remoto, con una menor saturación de respuestas relacionadas con las dimensiones positivas del trabajo, el aprendizaje y las cuestiones político-económicas. Estos resultados sugieren que el trabajo remoto de emergencia agrava el estrés docente, apuntando a la precariedad del trabajo docente y la necesidad de implementar políticas que mitiguen estos impactos.

The use of learning problems is an active teaching-learning strategy widely used in various methods and curricula, from case studies to problem-based learning. By using problems as a stimulus to activity, the teacher encourages self-directed learning, the development of fundamental metacognitive aspects, the acquisition of problem solving skills, and intrinsic interest. I describe a method for creating problems in undergraduate courses in Psychology, based on previous experiences in biomedical (e.g., Anatomophysiology Applied to Psychology) and more critical (e.g., disciplines related to mental health and psychopathology) subjects. The method starts from the integration of the elements of the discipline syllabus to mobilize questions that generate a thematic tree. I also propose the application of methods based on activity theory to evaluate and calibrate the problem. The proposed method can benefit both integrated curricula and more isolated disciplines.

A utilização de problemas de aprendizagem é uma estratégia de ensino-aprendizagem ativa largamente utilizada em métodos e currículos diversos, do estudo de caso à aprendizagem baseada em problemas. Ao usar problemas como estímulo à atividade, o/a professor/a incentiva a aprendizagem autodirigida, o desenvolvimento de aspectos metacognitivos fundamentais, a aquisição de habilidades de resolução de problemas, e o interesse intrínseco. Descrevo um método para criar problemas em cursos de graduação em Psicologia, com base em experiências prévias em disciplinas de caráter biomédico (p. ex., Anatomofisiologia Aplicada à Psicologia) e de caráter mais crítico (p. ex., disciplinas relacionadas à saúde mental e à psicopatologia). O método parte da integração dos elementos da ementa da disciplina para movimentar perguntas geradoras de uma árvore temática. Proponho ainda a aplicação de métodos baseados na teoria da atividade para avaliar e calibrar o problema. O método proposto pode beneficiar tanto currículos integrados quanto disciplinas mais isoladas.

Abstract Introduction In rats, long-term ovariectomy results in low concentrations of steroid hormones and reproduces anxiety- and depression-like behavior after surgical menopause in women. Progesterone produces antidepressant-like effects two weeks post-ovariectomy (i.e., early post-ovariectomy) through actions on γ-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) receptors, but its antidepressant-like effects and mechanism of action in rats eight weeks post-ovariectomy (i.e., late post-ovariectomy, considered a model of surgical menopause) remain unknown. Objective To explore the antidepressant-like effects of progesterone and the participation of GABAA receptors in rats eight weeks post-ovariectomy. Method Long-term ovariectomized female Wistar rats were treated sub-acutely with vehicle or progesterone (.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg) and subjected to the open field and forced swim tests, and behavior was compared with cycling or fluoxetine-treated rats. The rats were then pretreated with picrotoxin (1 mg/kg) followed by progesterone (1 mg/kg) to explore the role of GABAA receptors in long-term-induced depression-like behavior. Results Long-term ovariectomized rats exhibited depression-like behavior in the forced swim test compared with intact rats, an effect that was not observed in progesterone- and fluoxetine-treated long-term ovariectomized rats. These effects were not attributable to psychomotor alterations. In the open field test, the time spent rearing and grooming was lower in ovariectomized rats compared with intact rats, which was not observed in progesterone- and fluoxetine-treated rats. Picrotoxin blocked the effects of progesterone in both behavioral tests. Discussion and conclusion These results indicated that sub-acute progesterone treatment reduced depression-like behavior through actions on GABAA receptors in a rat model of surgical menopause.

Resumen Introducción En la rata, la ovariectomía a largo plazo reproduce algunos síntomas de la menopausia quirúrgica, incluyendo la conducta de tipo depresiva. La progesterona produce efectos tipo antidepresivo en ratas con dos semanas de post-ovariectomía (post-ovariectomía temprana) con participación del receptor GABAA, pero se desconoce si este efecto y mecanismo de acción se mantiene en ratas con ocho semanas de post-ovariectomía (post-ovariectomía tardía considerada como un modelo de menopausia quirúrgica). Objetivo Evaluar el efecto tipo antidepresivo de la progesterona y la participación del receptor GABAA en ratas con ocho semanas de post-ovariectomía. Método Ratas con ocho semanas de post-ovariectomía fueron tratadas sub-agudamente con vehículo o progesterona (.5, 1, y 2 mg/kg) y comparadas con ratas intactas u ovariectomizadas tratadas con fluoxetina, evaluadas en campo abierto y nado forzado. Posteriormente, se identificó la participación del receptor GABAA en los efectos de progesterona (1 mg/kg) mediante el pretratamiento con picrotoxina (1 mg/kg). Resultados En nado forzado, la ovariectomía produjo conductas tipo depresión en comparación con las ratas intactas de la gónada, un efecto prevenido por la administración de progesterona y fluoxetina. En campo abierto, no hubo cambios significativos en la locomoción, pero la conducta vertical y el acicalamiento fueron bajos en las ratas ovariectomizadas respecto a las ratas intactas; lo cual fue prevenido por progesterona y fluoxetina. La picrotoxina bloqueó los efectos de la progesterona en ambas pruebas conductuales. Discusión y conclusión El tratamiento subagudo con progesterona reduce la conducta tipo depresión inducida en un modelo de menopausia quirúrgica con participación del receptor GABAA.

A behavioral test battery is proposed for wall lizards (Tropidurus oreadicus) that consists of inducing tonic immobility (TI) followed by post-TI behavioral scoring. After the induction of TI, the usual behavioral sequence was flight followed by freezing and tongue-flicking and/or thigmotaxis, with flight being more probable than freezing. These sequences were not observed after restraint in a normal upward position (which induced freezing but not TI) or after handling (which increased the probability of tongue-flicking). Alprazolam and imipramine selectively decreased the duration of TI as well as the following flight and freezing behavior. Tongue-flicking was increased by diazepam and alprazolam, whereas fluoxetine decreased it. Finally, thigmotaxis was reduced by diazepam, alprazolam, and imipramine but increased by fluoxetine. These results suggest that panic and anxiety can be discriminated pharmacologically in wall lizards.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is present in the environment because of natural and anthropogenic causes. MeHg can reach the central nervous system (CNS) and cause neurological damage in humans and animals. Electric organ discharges (EODs) in the weak electric fish Gymnotus sylvius are produced by the electric organ and modulated by the CNS. These discharges are used for electrolocation and communication. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of dietary MeHg exposure on EOD rate in G. sylvius. An oscilloscope was used to record the EOD rate. Two treatments were investigated: chronic MeHg administration (4 µg/kg MeHg every 2 days, with a total of nine dietary exposures to MeHg) and acute MeHg administration (a single dose of 20 µg/kg MeHg). The control data for both treatments were collected every 2 days for 18 days, with a total of nine sessions (day 1 until day 18). Data of fish exposed to MeHg were collected every 2 days, totaling nine sessions (day 19 until day 36). Chronic treatment significantly increased the EOD rate in G. sylvius (p < .05), especially with the final treatment (day 32 until day 36). Acute treatment resulted in an initial increase in the EOD rate, which was maintained midway through the experiment (day 26 until day 30; p < .05). The present study provides the first insights into the effects of MeHg on EODs in weak electric fish. The EOD rate is a novel response of the fish to MeHg administration.

Zebrafish have been demonstrated to react consistently to noxious chemical stimuli and present reliable phenotypes of stress, fear, and anxiety. In this article, we describe the modulation of nociceptive-like responses of zebrafish to fear-, stress-, and anxiety-eliciting situations. Animals were exposed to an alarm substance, confinement stress, or a novel environment before being injected with 1% acetic acid in the tail. The alarm substance and confinement stress reduced the display of erratic movements and tail-beating behavior elicited by acetic acid. The novelty of the environment, in contrast, increased the frequency of tail-beating behavior. The results suggest that descending modulatory control of nociception exists in zebrafish, with apparent fear- and stress-induced analgesia and anxiety-induced hyperalgesia.

In experimental psychopathology, construct validity is usually enhanced by addressing theories from other fields in its nomological network. In the field of anxiety research, this construct is related to antipredator behavior, conserved across phylogeny in its functions and neural basis, but not necessarily on its topography. Even though the relations between behavioral models of anxiety and statements from behavioral ecology and evolutionary biology are commonly made in anxiety research, these are rarely tested, at least explicitly. However, in order to increase construct validity in experimental anxiety, testing predictions from those theories is highly desirable. This article discusses these questions, suggesting a few ways in which behavioral ecological and evolutionary hypotheses of anxiety-like behavior may be tested.

In order to determine the modulation of anxiolytic and panicolytic-like effects of diazepam by the hormonal cycle of female rats, male and female rats - the latter divided per estrous cycle phase (estrus, diestrus, metaestrus and proestrus) - were tested in the elevated T-maze, a behavioral model of panic and anxiety. Diazepam (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg/kg) or saline solution was injected in individual animals that were submitted to one session in the elevated T-maze 25 min after drug/saline administration. The test consisted of three avoidance trials and one escape trial, separated by a 30 s interval, during which the animals were isolated in individual cages. The avoidance trials began with the animal being placed at the end of the maze's enclosed arm. The time necessary for the animal to leave the central square was considered as the response's latency. The trials that exceeded 300 s were considered as failures. Results demonstrate a decrease in the effects of diazepam in inhibitory avoidance (anxiety) trials in females in diestrus and proestrus, but no relation of gender or estrous cycle on diazepam effects on escape trials (fear). The results support the hypothesis that down-regulation of GABA A receptors by activation of nuclear estrogen receptors and induction of PKC-mediated GABA A receptor phosphorylation by activation of surface estrogen receptors in raphe neurons underlie the modulation of diazepam sensitivity by estrogen.

The present work aimed at studying the influence of the estrous cycle in the forced swim test, an animal model of depression. For this, 44 male and female Wistar rats were divided into five groups according to the hormonal state in the first day of the study: metaestrus (N = 12), diestrus (N = 8), proestrus (N = 7), estrous (N = 6) and males (N = 11). They were housed in groups of five, with water and food ad libitum under a 12/12 h light/dark cycle. Females were screened daily for the estrous cycle. The animals were subjected to two swimming sessions in a glass cylinder with water up to 15 cm at 28±2º C. The data of the first five minutes of a 15-min first session were compared to those of a 5-min second session 24 h later. The results indicate that the latency to the first immobility was substantially reduced in the second session and was longer for females in diestrus and proestrus in the first session. The results also indicate that females in diestrus and proestrus exhibited less immobility than males in the first session; females in diestrus also exhibited less immobility than females in metaestrus. Females in metaestrus and diestrus, as well as males, did not present the decrease in total immobility times in the second session. The present results are analyzed in terms of differential effects of progesterone and estrogen on a learning component and an affective component.