Abstract Introduction Digital mammography present many advantages in comparison to conventional mammography, such as high dynamic range and the post-processing of acquired images. One problem is that protocols may not be optimized, resulting in higher absorbed doses to patients. The objective of this work is to evaluate image quality and to estimate mean glandular doses (MGD) in patients submitted to mammography examinations with three digital systems and one screen-film system in Recife, Brazil. Methods To estimate the MGD, the parameters used to acquire images of 5475 patients, with ages between 40 and 64 years and compressed breasts between 2 and 9 cm, were registered. The MGD was calculated by multiplying the incident air kerma with conversion coefficients depending on the anode/filter, breast glandularity and half-value layer. The image quality evaluation of the digital systems was made using objective and subjective European criteria. Results The results showed MGDs in the range of 0.4-10.3 mGy and the higher values were observed with digital systems. It was also observed that in the digital systems the use of compression force is not adequate and the irradiation parameters are not optimized. The images failed to reproduce the pectoral muscle and the contrast-to-noise ratio was not adequate for one system, indicating the need to improve the patient’s positioning and the exposure parameters. Conclusion It can be concluded that the use of non-optimized irradiation parameters is causing the higher doses with digital systems, highlighting the insufficient compression force.

Resumo Objetivo: Estimar o kerma no ar na superfície de entrada (Ka,e) e o kerma no ar na região de órgãos radiossensíveis em radiografias pediátricas dos seios paranasais. Materiais e Métodos: Foram coletados os dados dos pacientes e parâmetros de irradiação em exames de seios paranasais de crianças com 0 a 15 anos, em dois hospitais infantis na cidade do Recife, PE. O Ka,e foi estimado utilizando os rendimentos dos tubos de raios X e os parâmetros selecionados. Os valores de kerma no ar nas regiões dos olhos e tireoide foram estimados utilizando dosímetros termoluminescentes. Resultados: Os valores de Ka,e variaram de 0,065 a 1,446 mGy para radiografias cavum, 0,104 a 7,298 mGy para Caldwell e 0,113 a 7,824 mGy para Waters. Os valores de kerma no ar na região dos olhos variaram de 0,001 a 0,968 mGy para cavum e 0,011 a 0,422 mGy para Caldwell e Waters. Na região tireóidea, os valores de kerma no ar variaram de 0,005 a 0,932 mGy para cavum e 0,002 a 0,972 mGy para Caldwell e Waters. Conclusão: Os parâmetros de irradiação utilizados pelas instituições foram mais elevados do que os recomendados em protocolos britânicos. Ações de otimização são recomendadas de modo a contribuir para a redução da radiação nos pacientes e, portanto, os riscos.

Abstract Objective: To estimate the entrance surface air kerma (Ka,e) and air kerma in the region of radiosensitive organs in radiographs of pediatric paranasal sinuses. Materials and Methods: Patient data and irradiation parameters were collected in examinations of the paranasal sinuses in children from 0 to 15 years of age at two children's hospitals in the city of Recife, PE, Brazil. We estimated the Ka,e using the X-ray tube outputs and selected parameters. To estimate the air kerma values in the regions of the eyes and thyroid, we used thermoluminescent dosimeters. Results: The Ka,e values ranged from 0.065 to 1.446 mGy in cavum radiographs, from 0.104 to 7.298 mGy in Caldwell views, and from 0.113 to 7.824 mGy in Waters views. Air kerma values in the region of the eyes ranged from 0.001 to 0.968 mGy in cavum radiographs and from 0.011 to 0.422 mGy in Caldwell and Waters views . In the thyroid region, air kerma values ranged from 0.005 to 0.932 mGy in cavum radiographs and from 0.002 to 0.972 mGy in Caldwell and Waters views. Conclusion: The radiation levels used at the institutions under study were higher than those recommended in international protocols. We recommend that interventions be initiated in order to reduce patient exposure to radiation and therefore the risks associated with radiological examination of the paranasal sinuses.

Objective The present study was aimed at estimating the doses received by physicians and patients during cerebral angiography procedures in a public hospital of Recife, PE, Brazil. Materials and Methods The study sample included 158 adult patients, and during the procedures the following parameters were evaluated: exposure parameters (kV, mAs), number of acquired images, reference air kerma value (Ka,r) and air kerma-area product (PKA). Additionally, the physicians involved in the procedures were evaluated as for absorbed dose in the eyes, thyroid, chest, hands and feet. Results The results demonstrated that the doses to the patients' eyes region were relatively close to the threshold for cataract occurrence. As regards the physicians, the average effective dose was 2.6 µSv, and the highest effective dose recorded was 16 µSv. Conclusion Depending on the number of procedures, the doses received by the physicians may exceed the annual dose limit for the crystalline lenses (20 mSv) established by national and international standards. It is important to note that the high doses received by the physicians are due to the lack of radiation protection equipment and accessories, such as leaded curtains, screens and protective goggles.

This paper describes the manufacturing process of quartz-pellets and shows their potential use as thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD) for those applications where low-levels of ionising radiation are present. Two batches of cold-pressed pellets were produced and their resistance were evaluated by vibration tests and weight-loss measurements. The batch manufactured with 75 × 150 µm particles showed enough resistance to be employed as TLD. The dosimetric properties of the 310 °C peak appearing in the glow curves of these pellets were characterized together with commercial TLD-100 units using γ- and X-ray beams with different energies. The uncertainties related to reproducibility and stability of the TL signal were better than 10%. The sensitivity and the linearity of the TL response of quartz-pellets were better than that measured for TLD-100 for doses ranging from 0.5 to 200 mGy. The energy dependence of the quartz-pellets was higher than that of TLD-100 but it cannot be considered a restriction to their use in clinical procedures and industrial applications.

OBJETIVO: Estimar a dose extracraniana nos olhos, tireoide, tórax e pelve em pacientes submetidos a radiocirurgia com acelerador linear de 6 MV. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foram avaliados 11 pacientes com tumores cerebrais primários (7 pacientes) e secundários (4 pacientes), sendo que dois destes apresentavam duas lesões. Para a estimativa da dose extracraniana, foram utilizados dosímetros termoluminescentes. Foram utilizados cones de 1,50 a 3,75 cm e as doses de radiação variaram de 1300 a 2000 cGy. RESULTADOS: A idade média dos pacientes foi de 52 anos, sendo 63,6% do sexo feminino e 36,4% do sexo masculino. As localizações das lesões foram: nervo acústico direito (1), frontal (2), parietal (5), occipital direito (1), cerebelar (2) e parassagitais (2). Os valores médios das doses recebidas na região entre os olhos foram de 5,1 cGy; no olho direito, de 4,8 cGy; no olho esquerdo, de 6,5 cGy; na tireoide, de 4,2 cGy; no tórax, de 1,65 cGy; e na pelve, de 0,45 cGy. CONCLUSÃO: Estes resultados mostram que embora as doses não ultrapassem os limites de tolerância para ocorrência da opacidade do cristalino, é importante que os médicos radioterapeutas considerem os riscos de dose de radiação nessas regiões durante o planejamento de procedimentos de radiocirurgia craniana.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate extracranial doses on eyes, thyroid, chest and pelvis in patients submitted to radiosurgery with 6 MV linear accelerator. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present study evaluated 11 patients, 7 of them with primary, and 4 with secondary brain tumors. In the latter group, 2 patients had two lesions. Thermoluminescent dosimeters were utilized to estimate the extracranial dose. Radiosurgery cones ranges between 1.50 and 3.75 cm and doses between 1300 and 2000 cGy. RESULTS: Mean patients' age was 52 years, and 63.6% of them were women and 36.4%, men. Lesion locations were the following: right acoustic nerve (1), frontal (2), parietal (5), right occipital (1), cerebellum (2) and parasagittal (2). Mean received doses were the following: 5.1 cGy between the eyes; 4.8 cGy in the right eye; 6.5 cGy in the left eye; 4.2 cGy in the thyroid; 1.65 cGy in the chest; and 0.45 cGy in the pelvis. CONCLUSION: The results demonstrate that that although the eye doses do not exceed the tolerance limits for occurrence of lens opacity, it is important that the risks associated with radiation doses are taken into consideration by radiotherapists in the planning of cranial radiosurgery procedures.

OBJETIVO: Este trabalho teve como objetivo estimar os valores de doses de radiação recebidas por médicos e pacientes em procedimentos intervencionistas cardíacos realizados em um hospital público na cidade de Recife, Pernambuco. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: As medidas foram determinadas em 31 pacientes adultos, dos quais 22 tiveram acompanhamento clínico após o procedimento, e em dois cardiologistas com mais de dez anos de experiência. Parâmetros de irradiação para cada procedimento foram registrados. RESULTADOS: Os valores obtidos para a dose absorvida máxima na pele do paciente variaram entre 612 e 8.642 mGy, sendo que 53% foram maiores que 2.000 mGy, valores estes que podem causar efeitos determinísticos. Com relação aos médicos, a dose efetiva média por procedimento foi de 11 µSv e os valores médios do equivalente de dose nas extremidades, mais altos, foram: 923 µSv no pé esquerdo, 514 µSv no pé direito, 382 µSv na mão esquerda e 150 µSv no olho esquerdo. Dependendo do número de procedimentos, as doses recebidas pelos médicos podem exceder os valores limites de doses estabelecidos pelas normas nacionais e internacionais. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados obtidos sinalizam a necessidade de adoção de estratégias para otimização da proteção radiológica tanto de pacientes quanto de médicos.

OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at estimating the values of radiation doses received by physicians and patients during interventional cardiology procedures performed at a public hospital in the city of Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Measurements were made in two cardiologists with more than ten years of experience and in 31 adult patients, with 22 of them being clinically followed-up after the procedure. The individual irradiation parameters were documented. RESULTS: The values for maximum patients skin dose ranged between 612 and 8,642 mGy, achieving more than 2,000 mGy in 53% of the patients; such dose values may cause deterministic effects. As regards the physicians, the mean effective dose per procedure was 11 µSv, and the highest mean equivalent doses in the limbs were 923 µSv in the left foot, 514 µSv in the right foot, 382 µSv in the left hand, and 150 µSv in the left eye. Depending on the number of procedures, the doses received by the physician may exceed the dose limits established by the Brazilian and international standards. CONCLUSION: The obtained results indicate the necessity of adopting strategies for optimizing the radiological protection for both patients and physicians.

This work investigates the effect of particle size in the thermoluminescence (TL) response of a quartz crystal that was initially crushed and classified into ten size fractions between 38 μm and 5 mm. Aliquots of each size fraction were sensitized with a dose of 25 kGy of γ rays and heat-treatments at 400 °C. TL glow curves of sensitized and non-sensitized samples were recorded as a function of different test-doses of γ rays. For the non-sensitized samples, the TL peak near 325 °C increases with the decrease in particle size. In the case of sensitized samples, a strong TL peak near 300 °C increases with the increase in particle size up to mean grain size equal to 304 μm. Above 304 μm, an abrupt reduction in the TL intensity is noticed for the sensitized peak. These effects are discussed in relation to the specific surface area of quartz particles and the intensity of the electron paramagnetic resonance signal of the E'1 center induced by the sensitization process.

OBJETIVO: Os objetivos deste trabalho são: a) avaliar os procedimentos radiográficos e estimar o valor do kerma no ar na superfície de entrada nos recém-nascidos prematuros submetidos a exames de tórax e abdome, realizados no setor de neonatologia de um hospital público de Belo Horizonte; b) estimar as doses nos órgãos e os respectivos riscos de ocorrência de câncer nesses órgãos em decorrência das exposições à radiação. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foram analisados os prontuários dos pacientes internados no setor de neonatologia desse hospital durante o período de maio a setembro de 2004, anotando-se os dados antropométricos, data de internação/alta, exames de raios X realizados. O kerma no ar na superfície de entrada foi determinado a partir do rendimento do tubo de raios X e dos parâmetros de irradiação utilizados nos exames. As doses nos órgãos foram estimadas com o software PCXMC e o risco, durante o restante da expectativa de vida, com o software IREP. RESULTADOS: O valor médio do kerma no ar na superfície de entrada por exame foi abaixo do nível de referência da publicação da Comunidade Européia. Para o paciente mais severamente irradiado, os órgãos mais suscetíveis à ocorrência de câncer foram fígado, mama e estômago, com valores máximos de excess relative risk, respectivamente, de 3,4%, 2,3% e 1,7%. CONCLUSÃO: Foi constatada a necessidade de otimização dos procedimentos radiográficos com vista à diminuição do risco para os recém-nascidos, que apesar de ser considerado baixo (comparativamente ao benefício), deve ser sempre diminuído para valores tão baixos quanto razoavelmente exeqüíveis.

OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at: a) evaluating radiographic procedures and estimating entrance surface air kerma in preterm neonates submitted to chest and abdominal radiography at the unit of neonatology in a public hospital of Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; b) estimating the dose to organs and respective risks for cancer as a result from radiation exposure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Records of patients admitted to the unit of neonatology of this hospital in the period between May and September 2004 were reviewed. Anthropometric data, admission/discharge dates and radiographic studies performed were recorded for each of the patients. The calculation of the entrance surface air kerma was based on the x-ray tube output and irradiation parameters adopted for examinations. Dose to organs was calculated with the aid of the software PCXMC, and the lifetime risk for cancer, with the software IREP. RESULTS: Mean entrance surface air kerma per examination was below the diagnostic reference levels recommended by the European Community. In the most severely irradiated patients, liver, breast and stomach were the organs at highest risk for cancer, with maximum excess relative risk of respectively 3.4%, 2.3%, and 1.7%. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrated the need for optimization of radiographic procedures in order to reduce the risks for neonates that, in spite of being considered to be low as compared with the benefits, should be reduced to values as low as reasonably achievable.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar a freqüência das incidências radiográficas realizadas nos seios da face de pacientes pediátricos em hospitais de Belo Horizonte, MG, as condições de radioproteção, as técnicas radiográficas empregadas, o kerma no ar de entrada e as doses nos órgãos mais expostos. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foram coletados os dados dos pacientes e parâmetros de técnica radiográfica empregados em exames de crianças de 1 a 16 anos de idade, em cinco salas de quatro hospitais da cidade, observando, também, aspectos de proteção radiológica. O kerma no ar de entrada foi estimado a partir dos rendimentos dos tubos de raios-x e as doses nos órgãos utilizando o software PCXMC. RESULTADOS: Os valores médios do kerma no ar de entrada para as cinco salas foram, respectivamente, 1.398 µGy, 829 µGy, 877 µGy, 1.168 µGy e 3.886 µGy para pacientes entre 1 e 5 anos de idade. CONCLUSÃO: Foi constatado que as incidências mento-naso e fronto-naso são comumente solicitadas em conjunto, na maioria dos hospitais, o que confere dose significativa para os pacientes. Os riscos para os pacientes podem ser diminuídos mediante a utilização de cilindros de colimação, a não-utilização de grades antiespalhamento, o emprego de altos valores de tensão e baixos valores de tempo.

OBJECTIVE: The present study was aimed at evaluating the frequency of radiographic assessment of paranasal sinuses in pediatric patients in hospitals of Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil. Additionally, aspects regarding radiation protection conditions and radiographic parameters were evaluated, and entrance air kerma and organ doses were estimated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients' data and parameters of radiographic technique employed in the assessment of children in the age range between 1 and 16 years were collected in five examination rooms of four hospitals in Belo Horizonte, also taking into consideration the radiation protection aspects. Entrance air kerma calculation was based on the x-ray tubes output, and organ doses were estimated with the PCXMC software. RESULTS: Mean entrance air kerma values found in the five rooms were, respectively, 1398 µGy, 829 µGy, 877 µGy, 1168 µGy and 3886 µGy for patients with ages between 1 and 5 years. CONCLUSION: Most frequently, mento-naso and fronto-naso views are requested in conjunction in the majority of hospitals, which increases the radiation dose to the patients. It may be concluded that the risks for patients can be reduced by means of the utilization of an appropriate x-ray field, non-utilization of antiscattering grids, selection of high voltages and lower exposure times.

OBJETIVO: Foi realizada avaliação da dose de entrada na pele, da dose efetiva e da qualidade da imagem em radiografias de tórax de pacientes adultos. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: O estudo realizou-se em oito hospitais, sendo sete públicos (dois filantrópicos) e um particular nos municípios de Angra dos Reis, Cabo Frio, Campos dos Goytacazes, Itaperuna, Niterói, Recife e Rio de Janeiro. Foram avaliadas a dose de entrada na pele e a dose efetiva de 735 radiografias de tórax nas incidências póstero-anterior/ântero-posterior e perfil. No que se refere aos critérios de imagem, foram avaliadas 44 radiografias. RESULTADOS: Constatou-se variação de até nove vezes nos valores da dose de entrada na pele e de até seis vezes na dose efetiva para um mesmo tipo de projeção. Os valores das técnicas radiográficas também apresentaram grandes discrepâncias. A qualidade das imagens também não é boa, pois foi obtido valor médio de presença dos critérios de apenas 55%. CONCLUSÃO: Há necessidade de melhoria/padronização de procedimentos em radiologia convencional, o que pode ser atingido se for implantado um programa de controle e garantia de qualidade no setor de radiologia, incluindo o treinamento dos técnicos, a aferição do desempenho dos equipamentos emissores de radiação e o controle sensitométrico do sistema de processamento radiográfico.

OBJECTIVE: Entrance skin dose, effective dose, and imaging quality in chest radiographs of adult patients have been evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study has been developed in eight institutions - seven public hospitals (two of them philanthropic institutions) and one private - in the cities of Agra dos Reis, Cabo Frio, Campos dos Goytacazes, Itaperuna, Niterói, Recife and Rio de Janeiro. Entrance skin dose and effective dose have been evaluated in 735 chest radiographs obtained in posteroanterior/anteroposterior and lateral projections. As regards imaging criteria, 44 radiographs have been evaluated. RESULTS: Variations of up to nine times in entrance skin dose, and six times in effective dose have been detected for a same type of projection. Also, significant discrepancies have been found in values resulting from radiographic techniques employed. Besides, imaging quality has not been good since the rate of compliance with imaging criteria was only 55%. CONCLUSION: There is a pressing need for improvement/standardization of procedures in conventional radiology; this can be achieved by implementing a quality control and assurance program in the department of radiology, including training of technicians, x-ray equipment calibration, and sensitometric control of films processors.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste trabalho consiste em estudar a influência da resolução espacial da sonda gama Europrobe que é utilizada em cirurgia radioguiada. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Na técnica de cirurgia radioguiada, após a injeção de um radiotraçador no tumor primário, é utilizada uma sonda detectora de radiação gama a fim de determinar a localização do linfonodo sentinela. Para simular a região dos pontos de injeção do radiotraçador e o linfonodo sentinela, duas fontes de Tc-99m, com 20,42 MBq e 0,70 MBq, foram posicionadas no interior de um recipiente preenchido com água. Em seguida, com a janela de entrada da sonda coberta com um colimador, realizou-se varredura sobre a superfície da água. Assim, foi possível registrar a taxa de contagens variando-se a distância lateral da sonda em relação às duas fontes, as quais foram separadas por uma distância variando entre 30 mm e 60 mm. RESULTADOS: Os resultados mostraram que o uso do colimador contribui para melhorar a resolução espacial da sonda, permitindo a identificação do linfonodo sentinela distante até 30 mm do ponto de injeção. CONCLUSÃO: Esse estudo permite concluir que a sonda Europrobe, quando utilizada com capa colimadora com orifício central de 3,5 mm de diâmetro, é capaz de identificar o linfonodo sentinela posicionado a até 30 mm de distância em relação à região do ponto de injeção do radiotraçador.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study is to evaluate the performance of the Europrobe gamma probe spatial resolution in radioguided surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In the radioguided surgery technique, after a radiotracer injection into the primary tumor, a gamma detector probe is utilized to determine the localization of the sentinel lymph node. In order to simulate the region of the radiotracer injection the sentinel lymph node, two Tc-99m sources, with 20.42 MBq and 0.70 MBq, were positioned in a water-filled tank. With a collimator cap attached to the probe, scans over the water surface were made. So, the count rate was measured by means of lateral displacement of the probe in relation to the both sources with distances ranging between 30 mm and 60 mm. RESULTS: Results showed that the use of the collimator contributes to improve the spatial resolution of the probe allowing the identification of a sentinel lymph node within a distance up to 30 mm from the radiotracer injection point. CONCLUSION: The utilization of a collimator cap with a 3.5 mm diameter central orifice on a Europrobe gamma probe, allows the identification of a sentinel lymph node within a distance up to 30 mm from the radiotracer injection point.