ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the environmental and socioeconomic risk factors of malaria transmission at municipality level, from 2010 to 2015, in the Brazilian Amazon. METHODS The municipalities were stratified into high, moderate, and low transmission based on the annual parasite incidence. A multinomial logistic regression that compared low with medium transmission and low with high transmission was performed. For each category, three models were analyzed: one only with socioeconomic risk factors (Gini index, illiteracy, number of mines and indigenous areas); a second with the environmental factors (forest coverage and length of the wet season); and a third with all covariates (full model). RESULTS The full model showed the best performance. The most important risks factors for high transmission were Gini index, length of the wet season and illiteracy, OR 2.06 (95%CI 1.19–3.56), 1.73 (95%CI 1.19–2.51) and 1.10 (95%CI 1.03–1.17), respectively. The medium transmission showed a weaker influence of the risk factors, being illiteracy, forest coverage and indigenous areas statistically significant but with marginal influence. CONCLUSIONS As a disease of poverty, the reduction in wealth inequalities and, therefore, health inequalities, could reduce the transmission considerably. Besides, environmental risk factors as length of the wet season should be considered in the planning, prevention and control. Municipality-level and fine-scale analysis should be done together to improve the knowledge of the local dynamics of transmission.

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the environmental and socioeconomic risk factors of malaria transmission at municipality level, from 2010 to 2015, in the Brazilian Amazon. METHODS The municipalities were stratified into high, moderate, and low transmission based on the annual parasite incidence. A multinomial logistic regression that compared low with medium transmission and low with high transmission was performed. For each category, three models were analyzed: one only with socioeconomic risk factors (Gini index, illiteracy, number of mines and indigenous areas); a second with the environmental factors (forest coverage and length of the wet season); and a third with all covariates (full model). RESULTS The full model showed the best performance. The most important risks factors for high transmission were Gini index, length of the wet season and illiteracy, OR 2.06 (95%CI 1.19–3.56), 1.73 (95%CI 1.19–2.51) and 1.10 (95%CI 1.03–1.17), respectively. The medium transmission showed a weaker influence of the risk factors, being illiteracy, forest coverage and indigenous areas statistically significant but with marginal influence. CONCLUSIONS As a disease of poverty, the reduction in wealth inequalities and, therefore, health inequalities, could reduce the transmission considerably. Besides, environmental risk factors as length of the wet season should be considered in the planning, prevention and control. Municipality-level and fine-scale analysis should be done together to improve the knowledge of the local dynamics of transmission.

ABSTRACT The aim of this research was to investigate the origin of imported cases of dengue in the city of Araraquara, Brazil and to describe the disease’s main epidemiological characteristics. The study encompassed all confirmed cases of dengue recorded in the Information System for Notifiable Diseases (SINAN) [Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação] from 1998 to 2013. Cases whose origin of infection was likely located outside Araraquara were considered imported. The epidemiological study entailed a descriptive analysis of the data, regarding the distribution of cases by sex, age, and classification of imported and autochthonous cases. A geographic information system was used to map flows and estimate distances. There were 6,913 confirmed cases, 419 of which were imported. In most cases, the origin of infection was located in the state of São Paulo as well as other Brazilian regions. The results indicate the relevance of imported cases and differences in the epidemiological profile with respect to age and sex. Conclusions indicate the need to increase epidemiological and environmental health surveillance at ports, airports, truck stops, and bus and train terminals.

RESUMEN El objetivo de este trabajo fue investigar el origen de los casos importados de dengue en la ciudad de Araraquara, Brasil y describir las principales características epidemiológicas. El estudio abarcó todos los casos confirmados de dengue registrados en el Sistema de Información de Enfermedades de Notificación (SINAN) [Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação] de 1998-2013. Se consideraron como casos importados aquellos cuyo lugar de origen de infección se ubicara fuera de Araraquara. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo de la distribución de los casos por género, edad y clasificación de casos importados y autóctonos. Se utilizó un sistema de información geográfica para mapear los flujos y estimar las distancias de los puntos de contagio. Se incluyeron 6.913 casos confirmados, de los cuales 419 fueron importados. En la mayoría de estos casos, el origen de infección se ubicó en el estado de San Pablo, además de otras regiones brasileñas. Los resultados indican la relevancia de los casos importados y diferencias en el perfil epidemiológico por edad y sexo. Las conclusiones indican la necesidad de aumentar la vigilancia epidemiológica y de salud ambiental en los puertos, aeropuertos, paradas de camiones y terminales de buses y trenes.

ABSTRACT The aim of this research was to investigate the origin of imported cases of dengue in the city of Araraquara, Brazil and to describe the disease’s main epidemiological characteristics. The study encompassed all confirmed cases of dengue recorded in the Information System for Notifiable Diseases (SINAN) [Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação] from 1998 to 2013. Cases whose origin of infection was likely located outside Araraquara were considered imported. The epidemiological study entailed a descriptive analysis of the data, regarding the distribution of cases by sex, age, and classification of imported and autochthonous cases. A geographic information system was used to map flows and estimate distances. There were 6,913 confirmed cases, 419 of which were imported. In most cases, the origin of infection was located in the state of São Paulo as well as other Brazilian regions. The results indicate the relevance of imported cases and differences in the epidemiological profile with respect to age and sex. Conclusions indicate the need to increase epidemiological and environmental health surveillance at ports, airports, truck stops, and bus and train terminals.

RESUMEN El objetivo de este trabajo fue investigar el origen de los casos importados de dengue en la ciudad de Araraquara, Brasil y describir las principales características epidemiológicas. El estudio abarcó todos los casos confirmados de dengue registrados en el Sistema de Información de Enfermedades de Notificación (SINAN) [Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação] de 1998-2013. Se consideraron como casos importados aquellos cuyo lugar de origen de infección se ubicara fuera de Araraquara. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo de la distribución de los casos por género, edad y clasificación de casos importados y autóctonos. Se utilizó un sistema de información geográfica para mapear los flujos y estimar las distancias de los puntos de contagio. Se incluyeron 6.913 casos confirmados, de los cuales 419 fueron importados. En la mayoría de estos casos, el origen de infección se ubicó en el estado de San Pablo, además de otras regiones brasileñas. Los resultados indican la relevancia de los casos importados y diferencias en el perfil epidemiológico por edad y sexo. Las conclusiones indican la necesidad de aumentar la vigilancia epidemiológica y de salud ambiental en los puertos, aeropuertos, paradas de camiones y terminales de buses y trenes.

Resumo Os observatórios de saúde podem se diferenciar de acordo com sua missão, contexto institucional, enfoque temático e cobertura geográfica. O artigo discute o desenvolvimento de um novo observatório de saúde pública com enfoque urbano e sua pesquisa operacional e infraestrutura de ensino, sob a égide acadêmica do Departamento de Epidemiologia e do Instituto de Saúde Urbana da Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (BSPH) em Baltimore, Estados Unidos. A Bloomberg School reafirmou sua missão no ensino superior ao lançar uma nova formação profissional em saúde pública como primeiro passo importante no desenvolvimento do observatório. O novo observatório com base na academia é uma plataforma inovadora para o ensino e pesquisa em saúde pública que oferece ao corpo docente, pesquisadores, alunos de epidemiologia, e parceiros em projetos de pesquisa uma infraestrutura física e metodológica para suas atividades de pesquisa operacional e capacitação, com enfoque urbano local e alcance global. Discute-se o conceito de um observatório de saúde pública e seu papel no enfrentamento das desigualdades sociais em saúde em contextos urbanos locais.

Abstract Health observatories may differ according to their mission, institutional setting, topical emphasis or geographic coverage. This paper discusses the development of a new urban-focused health observatory, and its operational research and training infrastructure under the academic umbrella of the Department of Epidemiology and the Institute of Urban Health at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (BSPH) in Baltimore, USA. Recognizing the higher education mission of the BSPH, the development of a new professional training in public health was an important first step for the development of this observatory. This new academia-based observatory is an innovative public health research and training platform offering faculty, investigators, professional epidemiology students and research partners a physical and methodological infrastructure for their operational research and training activities with both a local urban focus and a global reach. The concept of a public health observatory and its role in addressing social health inequalities in local urban settings is discussed.

Resumen Los observatorios de salud pueden diferir de acuerdo con su misión, el contexto institucional, el enfoque temático y la cobertura geográfica. El artículo discute el desarrollo de un nuevo observatorio de salud pública con énfasis en la salud urbana y su investigación operativa y la infraestructura de la enseñanza, bajo los auspicios académicos del Departamento de Epidemiología y el Instituto de Salud Urbana de la Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health en Baltimore, Estados Unidos. La Bloomberg School reafirmó su misión en la educación superior mediante el lanzamiento de una nueva formación profesional en la salud pública como el primer paso en el desarrollo del observatorio. El nuevo observatorio, basado en la academia, es una plataforma innovadora para la enseñanza y la investigación en salud pública que ofrece a los profesores, investigadores, estudiantes de epidemiología y socios en proyectos de investigación, una infraestructura física y metodológica para las actividades de investigación operativa y de formación, con enfoque urbano local y alcance global. Se discute el concepto de un observatorio de salud pública y su papel en el afrontamiento a las desigualdades sociales en salud en los entornos urbanos locales.

Resumo Os observatórios de saúde podem se diferenciar de acordo com sua missão, contexto institucional, enfoque temático e cobertura geográfica. O artigo discute o desenvolvimento de um novo observatório de saúde pública com enfoque urbano e sua pesquisa operacional e infraestrutura de ensino, sob a égide acadêmica do Departamento de Epidemiologia e do Instituto de Saúde Urbana da Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (BSPH) em Baltimore, Estados Unidos. A Bloomberg School reafirmou sua missão no ensino superior ao lançar uma nova formação profissional em saúde pública como primeiro passo importante no desenvolvimento do observatório. O novo observatório com base na academia é uma plataforma inovadora para o ensino e pesquisa em saúde pública que oferece ao corpo docente, pesquisadores, alunos de epidemiologia, e parceiros em projetos de pesquisa uma infraestrutura física e metodológica para suas atividades de pesquisa operacional e capacitação, com enfoque urbano local e alcance global. Discute-se o conceito de um observatório de saúde pública e seu papel no enfrentamento das desigualdades sociais em saúde em contextos urbanos locais.

Abstract Health observatories may differ according to their mission, institutional setting, topical emphasis or geographic coverage. This paper discusses the development of a new urban-focused health observatory, and its operational research and training infrastructure under the academic umbrella of the Department of Epidemiology and the Institute of Urban Health at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health (BSPH) in Baltimore, USA. Recognizing the higher education mission of the BSPH, the development of a new professional training in public health was an important first step for the development of this observatory. This new academia-based observatory is an innovative public health research and training platform offering faculty, investigators, professional epidemiology students and research partners a physical and methodological infrastructure for their operational research and training activities with both a local urban focus and a global reach. The concept of a public health observatory and its role in addressing social health inequalities in local urban settings is discussed.

Resumen Los observatorios de salud pueden diferir de acuerdo con su misión, el contexto institucional, el enfoque temático y la cobertura geográfica. El artículo discute el desarrollo de un nuevo observatorio de salud pública con énfasis en la salud urbana y su investigación operativa y la infraestructura de la enseñanza, bajo los auspicios académicos del Departamento de Epidemiología y el Instituto de Salud Urbana de la Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health en Baltimore, Estados Unidos. La Bloomberg School reafirmó su misión en la educación superior mediante el lanzamiento de una nueva formación profesional en la salud pública como el primer paso en el desarrollo del observatorio. El nuevo observatorio, basado en la academia, es una plataforma innovadora para la enseñanza y la investigación en salud pública que ofrece a los profesores, investigadores, estudiantes de epidemiología y socios en proyectos de investigación, una infraestructura física y metodológica para las actividades de investigación operativa y de formación, con enfoque urbano local y alcance global. Se discute el concepto de un observatorio de salud pública y su papel en el afrontamiento a las desigualdades sociales en salud en los entornos urbanos locales.

A systematic review of the geospatial analysis methods used in the dengue fever studies published between January 2001 and March 2011 was undertaken. In accordance with specific selection criteria thirty-five studies were selected for inclusion in the review. The aim was to assess the types of spatial methods that have been used to analyze dengue transmission. We found twenty-one different methods that had been used in dengue fever epidemiological studies in that period, three of which were most frequently used. The results show that few articles had applied spatial analysis methods in dengue fever studies; however, whenever they were applied they contributed to a better understanding of dengue fever geospatial diffusion.

A systematic review of the geospatial analysis methods used in the dengue fever studies published between January 2001 and March 2011 was undertaken. In accordance with specific selection criteria thirty-five studies were selected for inclusion in the review. The aim was to assess the types of spatial methods that have been used to analyze dengue transmission. We found twenty-one different methods that had been used in dengue fever epidemiological studies in that period, three of which were most frequently used. The results show that few articles had applied spatial analysis methods in dengue fever studies; however, whenever they were applied they contributed to a better understanding of dengue fever geospatial diffusion.

This paper reviews and discusses the main procedures and policies that need to be followed when designing and implementing a binational survey such as the United States of America (U.S.)-Mexico Border Diabetes Prevalence Study that took place between 2001 and 2002. The main objective of the survey was to determine the prevalence of diabetes in the population 18 years of age or older along U.S.-Mexico border counties and municipalities. Several political, administrative, financial, legal, and cultural issues were identified as critical factors that need to be considered when developing and implementing similar binational projects. The lack of understanding of public health practices, implementation of existing policies, legislation, and management procedures in Mexico and the United States may delay or cancel binational research, affecting the working relation of both countries. Many challenges were identified: multiagency/multifunding, ethical/budget clearances, project management, administrative procedures, laboratory procedures, cultural issues, and project communications. Binational projects are complex; they require coordination between agencies and institutions at federal, state, and local levels and between countries and need a political, administrative, bureaucratic, cultural, and language balance. Binational agencies and staff should coordinate these projects for successful implementation.

En este artículo se analizan los principales procedimientos y normas que se deberían seguir al diseñar y ejecutar una encuesta binacional, como el estudio de prevalencia de la diabetes en la zona fronteriza entre México y los Estados Unidos que se llevó a cabo entre el 2001 y el 2002. El objetivo principal de la encuesta fue determinar la prevalencia de diabetes en las personas de 18 años o mayores en los condados y municipios fronterizos entre México y los Estados Unidos. Se definieron diversos aspectos políticos, administrativos, financieros, legales y culturales como factores fundamentales que se deben tener en cuenta al elaborar y ejecutar proyectos binacionales similares. La falta de comprensión de las prácticas de salud pública, la ejecución de las normas existentes, la legislación y los procedimientos de gestión en México y los Estados Unidos pueden retardar o cancelar las actividades de investigación binacional, y afectar las relaciones de trabajo entre ambos países. Se señalaron muchas dificultades con respecto a la multiplicidad de organismos y fuentes de financiación, las autorizaciones de carácter ético y presupuestario, la gestión del proyecto, los procedimientos administrativos, los procedimientos de laboratorio, los aspectos culturales y la comunicación del proyecto. Los proyectos binacionales son complejos; requieren coordinación entre los organismos y las instituciones a escalas federal, estatal, local y entre países, y precisan un equilibrio político, administrativo, burocrático, cultural e idiomático. El personal y los organismos binacionales deben coordinar estos proyectos con objeto de lograr su eficaz ejecución.

RESUMO A mensuração das desigualdades em saúde é uma condição indispensável para se avançar na melhoria da situação de saúde da Região, onde a análise de valores médios deixou de ser suficiente. Este tipo de análise é uma ferramenta fundamental para ações que buscam maior eqüidade em saúde. Existem diferentes métodos de mensuração e níveis de complexidade, cuja escolha depende do objetivo do estudo. Este artigo tem como objetivo familiarizar os profissionais de saúde e os tomadores de decisão com os aspectos metodológicos da mensuração e da análise simples das desigualdades em saúde, utilizando-se dados básicos coletados rotineiramente e agregados por unidades geopolíticas. São apresentadas as formas de calcular os seguintes indicadores e são discutidas suas vantagens e desvantagens: Razão e Diferença de Taxas, Índice de Efeito, Risco Atribuível Populacional, Índice de Dissimilaridade, Índice Angular de Desigualdade e Índice Relativo de Desigualdade, Coeficiente de Gini e Índice de concentração. Os métodos apresentados são aplicáveis na mensuração de desigualdades em diferentes tipos e níveis de análise.

RESUMEN La medición de las desigualdades en el campo de la salud es una condición indispensable para avanzar en la mejoría de la situación de salud de la Región, donde el análisis de los valores medios ha dejado de ser suficiente. Este tipo de análisis es una herramienta fundamental para la acción en busca de una mayor equidad en salud. Existen diferentes métodos de medición y niveles de complejidad cuya elección depende del objetivo del estudio. Este artículo tiene como objetivo familiarizar a los profesionales de la salud y a las instancias decisorias con los aspectos metodológicos de la medición y el análisis simple de las desigualdades en el campo de la salud, utilizando datos básicos registrados con regularidad y agregados por unidades geopolíticas. Se presenta la forma de calcular los siguientes indicadores y se comentan sus ventajas y desventajas: la razón y la diferencia de tasas, el índice de efecto, el riesgo atribuible poblacional, el índice de disimilitud, el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente y el índice relativo de desigualdad, el coeficiente de Gini y el índice de concentración. Los métodos presentados son aplicables a la medición de las desigualdades de diferentes tipos y a distintos niveles de análisis.

ABSTRACT Measuring health inequalities is indispensable for progress in improving the health situation in the Region of the Americas, where the analysis of average values is no longer sufficient. Analyzing health inequalities is a fundamental tool for action that seeks greater equity in health. There are various measurement methods, with differing levels of complexity, and choosing one rather than another depends on the objective of the study. The purpose of this article is to familiarize health professionals and decision-making institutions with methodological aspects of the measurement and simple analysis of health inequalities, utilizing basic data that are regularly reported by geopolitical unit. The calculation method and the advantages and disadvantages of the following indicators are presented: the rate ratio and the rate difference, the effect index, the population attributable risk, the index of dissimilarity, the slope index of inequality and the relative index of inequality, the Gini coefficient, and the concentration index. The methods presented are applicable to measuring various types of inequalities and at different levels of analysis.

As described in the scientific literature, indices used to measure social inequalities in health have positive features, but they also have shortcomings, depending on how they are applied. The objective of this article is to put forward and to demonstrate, in both theoretical and practical terms, the advantages of measurements of inequality based on the notion of entropy, which is well known in physics and in information theory. The article defines and presents the main properties of indices based on the notions of entropy and redundancy. The application of the indices is illustrated with two fictitious data sets and also with real data derived from basic health indicators for the Americas, from the Pan American Health Organization. Indices based on the notion of entropy have properties that include: a) not varying with scale changes, b) being symmetrical, c) incorporating a socioeconomic dimension, and d) being easy to interpret thanks to the condition of equivalence between entropy and a system with two categories.

Los índices descritos en la literatura para medir las desigualdades de salud de carácter social tienen facetas positivas pero también algunas insuficiencias, según las circunstancias de su aplicación. El objetivo de este artículo es proponer y demostrar, en los planos teórico y práctico, las ventajas de las mediciones de la desigualdad basadas en la noción de entropía, conocida ampliamente en la física y la teoría de la información. Se definen y exponen las principales propiedades de los índices basados en las nociones de entropía y redundancia. Se ilustra su aplicación en dos conjuntos de datos ficticios y en datos reales, derivados de los indicadores básicos de salud para las Américas, de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud. Los índices basados en la noción de entropía poseen, entre otras, las siguientes propiedades: a) no varían con los cambios de escala; b) son simétricos; c) incorporan la dimensión social, y d) son fáciles de interpretar gracias a la condición de equivalencia entre la entropía y un sistema con dos clases.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze differences in avoidable mortality among communes in Chile, using different indicators as an operational approach to estimating health inequalities. METHODS: Small area variation analysis in a sample of 117 of all 335 Chilean communes that existed in 1992. By using secondary data, we developed and compared some avoidable-mortality indicators, such as potential years of life lost (PYLL), avoidable mortality (AM) (based on background and criteria drawn from the literature), health care avoidable mortality (HCAMR), and life expectancy. A socioeconomic development index (SEDI) was also developed. The scope of the variation was estimated through the weighted variation coefficient, the Gini coefficient, the ratio between the values for the quintiles at both extremes of the SEDI distribution, and the ratio of the lowest SEDI quintile to the group of municipalities having a SEDI greater than 0.90 (optimal empirical reference value). The socioeconomic pattern of variations was examined through concentration curves and by comparing communal quintiles based on their SEDI. RESULTS: The various avoidable-mortality indicators used showed an inverse and statistically significant correlation with socioeconomic development, as well as with the profile of the various SEDI quintiles and with the majority of specific causes of avoidable mortality. The distribution profile of AM indicators among SEDI communal quintiles reflects the same tendency, along with most of the mortality from specific avoidable causes. The use of three reference values (the mean, the quintile with the greatest SEDI, and the optimal empirical reference value) makes it possible to measure gaps that could be avoided. The ratio of the lowest SEDI quintile to the empirical optimal reference value was 2.1 for AM, 2.0 for PYLL, 1.7 for infant mortality, and 1.5 for HCAMR. CONCLUSIONS: These results, which are consistent with those found in previous published sources, estimate the magnitude and pattern of variations among communes. The results also provide information, based on data for 1992, with which to start monitoring health inequalities among small geographic areas, which were communes in this particular case. Although interventions for promoting equity tend to focus exclusively on communes having lower socioeconomic development and higher rates of avoidable mortality, reducing the latter implies a two-pronged approach: prioritizing interventions targeting underprivileged communes so as to foster equity, while attempting to cover the majority of communes in an effort to prevent avoidable mortality.

OBJETIVOS:Analizar variaciones de mortalidad evitable entre comunas, utilizando diversos indicadores, como aproximación operacional para estimar desigualdades de salud. MÉTODOS:Análisis de variación de áreas pequeñas en una muestra de 117 de las 335 comunas chilenas en 1992. Usando datos secundarios, se desarrollaron y analizaron indicadores de mortalidad evitable, tales como los años de vida potencial perdidos (AVPP), la mortalidad evitable (ME) (con antecedentes y criterios basados en fuentes publicadas), la mortalidad evitable mediante la atención de salud (MEAS), y la esperanza de vida. También se creó un indicador de desarrollo socioeconómico (IDSE). La amplitud de las variaciones observadas entre indicadores se estimó mediante el coeficiente ponderado de variación, el coeficiente de Gini, la razón entre quintiles extremos del IDSE y la razón entre el quintil con el menor IDSE y el grupo de comunas con IDSE mayores de 0,90 (referencia empírica óptima). El perfil socioeconómico de las variaciones se examinó mediante curvas de concentración y la comparación de quintiles comunales según IDSE. RESULTADOS:Los diversos indicadores de ME usados mostraron una relación inversa estadísticamente significativa con el desarrollo socioeconómico, tendencia también observada en el perfil de los quintiles definidos por IDSE y en la mayoría de las causas específicas de mortalidad evitable. El uso de tres niveles de referencia (promedio, quintil con el mayor IDSE y referencia empírica óptima) plantea la medición de distintas brechas que podrían prevenirse. La razón entre el quintil con el menor IDSE y la referencia óptima fue de 2,1 en el caso de la ME, de 2,0 en el caso de los AVPP, de 1,7 en el de la mortalidad infantil y de 1,5 en el de la MEAS. CONCLUSIONES:Los resultados, que coinciden con los hallados en otras fuentes publicadas previamente, ponderan la magnitud y el perfil de las variaciones entre comunas y proveen información, basada en datos de 1992, para iniciar un monitoreo de las desigualdades de salud entre áreas geográficas pequeñas, en este caso las comunas. Aunque las iniciativas por mejorar la equidad se concentran en las comunas de menor desarrollo socioeconómico y mayor mortalidad evitable, reducir esta última implica una tarea con un enfoque doble: dar prioridad de intervención a las comunas más postergadas por un lado, y cubrir la mayoría de las comunas para prevenir la mortalidad evitable por el otro.