Resumo Apesar de seus impactos ambientais negativos, ambientes modificados pelo homem, como paisagens agrícolas e urbanas, podem ter um papel relevante na conservação da biodiversidade como complementos de áreas protegidas. Tais paisagens antropizadas podem ter espécies ameaçadas, valiosas e incômodas, embora a maioria delas não se enquadre em nenhuma dessas categorias. Portanto, em tais ambientes devemos lidar com o mesmo processo de tomada de decisão sobre as mesmas possíveis intervenções propostas por Caughley (1994) para o manejo da vida selvagem, que estão relacionadas à conservação biológica, uso sustentável, controle/coexistência e monitoramento. Esse processo de tomada de decisão deve ser baseado em boa ciência e boa governança. Neste contexto, o primeiro passo deverá ser a implementação de paisagens multifuncionais, que mantenham a sua missão primordial de uso humano, mas que incorporem uma segunda, mas fundamental missão de conservação biológica. Neste estudo apresentamos um resumo das pesquisas realizadas no Programa Biota da Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) neste campo desde o final da década de 1990 e propomos prioridades para pesquisa e governança da biodiversidade em paisagens multifuncionais para o futuro próximo.

Abstract: Despite their negative environmental impacts, human-modified environments such as agricultural and urban landscapes can have a relevant role on biodiversity conservation as complements of protected areas. Such anthropized landscapes may have endangered, valuable, and nuisance species, although most of them do not fit in any of these categories. Therefore, in such environments we must deal with the same decision-making process concerning the same possible interventions proposed by Caughley (1994) to wildlife management, which are related to biological conservation, sustainable use, control/coexistence, and monitoring. Such decision-making process should be based on good science and good governance. On such context, the first step should be to implement multifunctional landscapes, which keep their primary mission of human use, but incorporate a second but fundamental mission of biological conservation. In this study we present a summary of the research carried out at the Biota Program of Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) in this field since the late 1990's and propose priorities for biodiversity research and governance in multifunctional landscapes for the near future.

ABSTRACT Although the concept of optimal foraging has been extensively discussed, foraging efficiency is difficult to assess in vertebrates. In this study, we determined the foraging efficiency of the Brazilian cormorant, Nannopterum brasilianus Gmelin, 1789, by the direct, ad libitum observation of a group of four to thirteen individuals in an artificial pond at the University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, state of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. Although this study was carried out in a highly anthropic environment, we can still conclude that the Brazilian cormorant is a relatively efficient browser and short-term diver. In anthropic environments, foraging success depends on the amount of time these birds spend diving, and stealing food is less common. Stealing occurs at relatively low rates but tends to be an efficient way to get food.

Resumo: O uso de técnicas de amostragem não-invasivas é aconselhado quando se trabalha com espécies ameaçadas de animais selvagens. Amostras de pelo fornecem informações ecológicas, como a identificação ao nível da espécie e do indivíduo. No entanto, a coleta de pelo é pouco usada em lontras, devido aos seus hábitos aquáticos. A maioria dos estudos é feita com indivíduos em cativeiro, existindo por isso a necessidade de testar métodos não invasivos de coleta de pelos de lontras na natureza. O objetivo deste estudo foi desenvolver um método simples e com uma boa relação custo-benefício para coletar pelos de espécies de lontra de maneira não invasiva. O estudo foi realizado no rio Paranapanema, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil, com a lontra Neotropical (Lontra longicaudis Olfers, 1818), uma espécie protegida. Armadilhas de pelo (estacas de madeira e raízes de árvores com fita adesiva ou bandas de cera depilatória) foram colocadas durante seis noites nas margens do rio, em trilhas e locais de marcação de lontra. As armadilhas foram iscadas com dejetos frescos de lontra de outros locais do rio. Das 23 armadilhas, 10 (43.7%) foram eficazes na coleta de pelos de lontra, maioritariamente pelos-guarda. As estacas foram muito mais eficientes que as raízes na captura de pelos de lontra (70.6.% vs. 0%) tal como a fita adesiva quando comparada com a cera (71,4% vs. 0%). A simplicidade e a eficiência do método sugerem que esta pode ser uma maneira econômica de coletar pelo de lontra sem a necessidade de capturar indivíduos. Este método pode ser usado para: levantamento da distribuição local da lontra; coleta de amostras de pelo de lontra para identificação sexual e individual (por meio de análise molecular); ecologia trófica (por meio de análise isotópica); ecotoxicologia (por meio de análise de contaminantes); e ecologia comportamental (por meio da determinação de níveis hormonais reprodutivos e ligados ao estresse). Mais campanhas de armadilhagem devem ser implementadas para melhor avaliar a eficiência do método.

Abstract: Sampling wild animal populations using non-invasive techniques is advised when dealing with threatened species. Hair samples provide ecological information like species and individual identification. However, hair trapping is scarcely used in otters, due to their aquatic habits. Most studies are with captive individuals, so there is the need to test non-invasive hair trapping methods in otters in the wild. The aim of this study was to develop a simple and cost-effective method to collect hair from otter species in a non-invasive way. The study was carried out in the Paranapanema River, São Paulo State, Brazil, with the Neotropical otter (Lontra longicaudis Olfers, 1818), a protected species. Hair traps (wooden sticks and tree roots with adhesive tape or wax bands) were set during six nights on river banks, otter trails and scent-marking sites. Traps were baited with otter fresh spraints from other river locations. From the 23 traps, 10 (43.7%) were successful in collecting otter hairs, mostly guard-hair. The sticks were much more efficient than the roots at capturing otter hair (70.6.% vs. 0%) as well as adhesive tape when compared to wax (71.4% vs. 0%). Method simplicity and efficiency suggest that it can be a cost-effective way for collecting otter hairs without the need for capturing individuals. This method can be used for: assessment of local otter distribution; collecting otter hair samples for sex and individual identification (by molecular analysis), trophic ecology (by isotopic analyses), ecotoxicology (by contamination analysis) or behaviour ecology (by hormonal and stress levels analysis). More trapping campaigns should be implemented to further test the method's efficiency.

ABSTRACT Ecological niche is the multidimensional space comprising the resources used by an organism. Intraspecific variation in resource exploitation is common in reptile populations to maximize coexistence of individuals. The use of stable isotope analysis is an effective tool when there are variations in resource exploitation, since it can provide quantitative information about food consumption and habitat use. Mesoclemmys vanderhaegei (Bour, 1973) is a medium-sized turtle with a limited distribution in south central Brazil and Paraguay. In spite of that, little is known about its ecology. In this study we used stable isotope analysis to understand the intraspecific trophic niche variation in M. vanderhaegei at Serra das Araras Ecological Station, state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. The isotopic ratios of δ15N and δ13C were determined in claw samples collected from 14 males and 14 females. Isotopic niche width values were not statistically different between the sexes, there was a high degree of overlap between sexual niches and there were no relationships between isotopic compositions and body size. These results suggest that individuals of both sexes and throughout their ontogenetic development exploit food resources with the same isotopic baseline.

Este estudo foi realizado na região central do rio Araguaia, na fronteira entre os estados de Goiás e Mato Grosso, na Amazônia brasileira, durante os meses de setembro a dezembro de 2000. Além da variação da temperatura, foram avaliados o tamanho da ninhada, período de incubação, o sucesso de eclosão e a razão sexual dos filhotes recém eclodidos de cinco ninhos de Podocnemis expansa (Schweigger, 1812). Apesar do esforço amostral relativamente restrito, nós inferimos que: a) os ninhos estudados de P. expansa na região central do Rio Araguaia exibem temperaturas mais baixas do que ninhos mais ao sul, porém o período de incubação é menor, a taxa de eclosão é mais baixa e o tamanho de ninhada é maior; b) Podocnemis expansa pode mostrar um padrão fêmea-macho-fêmea (FMF) de determinação do sexo pela temperatura (TSD); c) o período termo-sensível para a determinação sexual aparentemente ocorre no último terço do período de incubação; e, d) futuros estudos devem priorizar a relação entre a variação da temperatura (i.e., amplitude e frequência) e o desenvolvimento embrionário, sobrevivência e a determinação sexual dos filhotes.

This study has been carried out at the central region of the Araguaia river on the border between the states of Goiás and Mato Grosso in the Brazilian Amazon Basin from September to December 2000. We recorded temperature fluctuation, clutch-size, incubation period and hatching success rate and hatchlings' sex ratio of five nests of Podocnemis expansa (Schweigger, 1812). Despite the relatively small sample size we infer that: a) nests of P. expansa in the central Araguaia river have a lower incubation temperature than nests located further south; however, incubation period is shorter, hatching success rate is lower and clutch-size is larger; b) Podocnemis expansa may present a female-male-female (FMF) pattern of temperature sex-determination (TSD); c) thermosensitive period of sex determination apparently occur at the last third of the incubation period; and, d) future studies should prioritize the relationship between temperature variation (i.e., range and cycle) and embryos development, survivorship and sex determination.

The isotopic composition ( δ13C and δ 15N) of muscle, carapace and claw was determined from six wild individuals of Phrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger, 1812) in order to verify the variation between those tissues. The mean values of δ13C e δ 15N were, respectively, -19.48 ± 0.81‰ (-20.8 - -18.64‰) and 7.23 ± 0.67‰ (6.49 - 8.3‰) for muscle, -16.52 ± 0.98‰ (-17.88 - -15.43‰) and 7.29 ± 0.54‰ (6.74 - 7.97‰) for carapace and -18.57 ± 0.97‰ (-19.97 - -17.26‰) and 4.36 ± 0.33‰ (3.93 - 4.79‰) for claw. We found a significant difference for the tissues evaluated for both δ13C and δ15N. Muscle and claw were statistically similar and more depleted in 13C than the carapace. Nonetheless, claw was more depleted in 15N than muscle and carapace tissues. These results are likely related to differences in metabolic processes involved on each tissue formation. The description of the isotopic signatures variation in P. geoffroanus tissues provides a baseline for future investigations on the diet reconstruction of this species when more than one tissue is involved.

Phrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger, 1812) is the freshwater turtle with the widest geographical distribution in South America. During 2006, physical examination and hematological evaluation were performed on free-ranging turtles from two polluted rivers, the Piracicaba River (n = 51) and its tributary Piracicamirim (n = 42), in southeastern Brazil. Red blood cell and thrombocyte counts, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels differed in turtles from the two water courses. Although free-ranging turtles showed ectoparasites and boat propeler lesions, animals apparently had no signs of clinical disease. In spite of our results, further monitoring of the demography and health status of Phrynops geoffroanus in anthropogenically altered environments is recommended.

The innate immune activity of the freshwater turtle Phrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger, 1812) was investigated, using a sheep-red-blood cell hemolysis assay. The time- and concentration-dependent hemolytic activity of the turtle plasma was low compared to that reported for other reptiles. However the plasma of P. geoffroanus exhibited higher activity at elevated temperatures, resulting in temperature-dependent hemolysis. The sensitivity of turtle plasma to temperature could be interpreted as a mechanism by which freshwater turtles use basking behavior to elevate body temperature, thus enhancing the innate immune response. However, we cannot discard the possibility that environmental contaminants could be affecting the turtle's immune response, since the animals in this investigation were captured in a polluted watercourse.

In this study, microsatellite markers, developed for Alligator mississipiensis and Caiman latirostris, were used to assess parentage among individuals from the captive colony of Caiman latirostris at the University of São Paulo, in Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil. Many of the females in the colony were full siblings, which made maternal identification difficult due to genotypic similarity. Even so, the most likely mother could be identified unambiguously among offspring in most of the clutches studied. Two non-parental females displayed maternal behavior which would have misled managers in assigning maternity based on behavior alone. This set of variable loci demonstrates the utility of parentage testing in captive propagation programs.

Broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) hatchlings present a consistent sexual dimorphism in their cranium shape and size. Male hatchlings have smaller crania than females. Using multivariate statistical analyses it is possible to discriminate sex in broad-snouted caiman hatchlings by their cranial shape with a reasonable efficiency. The understanding of sexual dimorphism of crocodilian hatchlings might be possibly improved by experimental approach considering, genetic and phenotypic variables such as incubation temperature and clutch of origin.

Los neonatos de yacaré overo (Caiman latirostris) presentan un dimorfismo sexual en la forma y tamaño de su cráneo. Los neonatos machos tienen cráneos más pequeños que las hembras. Mediante el uso de análisis estadísticos multivariados es posible discriminar el sexo de los neonatos de yacaré overo en función de su forma y tamaño con una razonable eficiencia. La comprensión del dimorfismo sexual de los neonatos de crocodilianos podría ser mejorada mediante un abordaje experimental de variables genéticas y fenotípicas, tales como la temperatura de incubación y el nido de origen.

Os mamíferos têm um importante papel na manutenção e regeneração das florestas tropicais, pois apresentam funções ecológicas essenciais e podem ser considerados como espécies-chave na estruturação das comunidades biológicas. Em paisagens com forte pressão antrópica e alto grau de fragmentação, as espécies apresentam respostas distintas, geralmente relacionadas ao tipo de dieta. A bacia do Rio Passa-Cinco, região centro-leste do Estado de São Paulo, é uma paisagem fortemente antropizada, com predomínio de pastagens, seguido por canaviais, reflorestamento de eucalipto e fragmentos de floresta estacional semidecídua. Realizamos levantamentos nesses habitats, determinando a riqueza de espécies e abundância relativa nas seguintes categorias tróficas de mamíferos de médio e grande porte: Insetívoros/Onívoros, Frugívoros/Onívoros, Frugívoros/Herbívoros, Carnívoros e Herbívoros/Pastadores. Diferenças quanto à riqueza de espécies e abundância relativa entre os habitats foram testadas com análise de variância de um fator, seguida pelo teste de Tukey, considerando: 1) cada categoria trófica separadamente e 2) o conjunto de todas as categorias tróficas. Entre julho de 2003 e junho de 2004 percorremos 284,4 km, registrando 20 espécies nativas e duas exóticas. Não foram detectadas diferenças na riqueza de espécies para nenhuma categoria trófica ou para a assembléia. Em relação à abundância relativa, a análise detectou diferenças para a assembléia como um todo, com as plantações de cana-de-açúcar apresentando maior abundância comparativamente as pastagens. Nossos resultados indicam que a paisagem heterogênea da área de estudo é dominada por espécies generalistas capazes de utilizar diversos tipos de habitats e itens alimentares disponíveis.

Mammals play an important role in the maintenance and regeneration of tropical forests since they have essential ecological functions and can be considered key-species in structuring biological communities. In landscapes with elevated anthropogenic pressure and high degree of fragmentation, species display distinct behavioral responses, generally related to dietary habits. The landscape of Passa-Cinco river basin, in the central-eastern region of São Paulo State, shows a high degree of anthropogenic disturbance, with sugar cane plantations, eucalyptus forests, native semideciduous forest remnants and pastures as the key habitat types in the region. We surveyed medium to large mammals in those habitats and determined species richness and relative abundance for each of the following trophic categories: Insectivore/Omnivores, Frugivore/Omnivores, Carnivores, Frugivore/Herbivores and Herbivore/Grazers. Differences in species richness and relative abundance among habitats were tested using one-way analysis of variance, followed by Tukey test, considering 1) each of the trophic categories individually and 2) the set of categories together. Between July 2003 and June 2004, 284.4 km were walked and 22 species were recorded (20 native and two exotics). Analysis of variance did not detect differences in species richness for any of the trophic categories or for the assemblage. Considering relative abundance, the analysis detected significant differences only for the whole assemblage, with the assemblage being more abundant in sugar cane plantations compared to pastures. Our results indicate that the heterogeneous landscape of the study area is dominated by generalist species adapted to use different habitat types and food items.

A conservação da vida silvestre normalmente necessita de estudos caso a caso porque a população - e não a espécie - deve ser na maioria das vezes a unidade do manejo. No Brasil, a falta de uma categoria profissional específica, como a dos wildlife biologists norte-americanos, dificulta a implantação de programas de conservação e manejo de vida silvestre. O preconceito contra o uso da fauna como recurso natural renovável, o abuso da criação em cativeiro e a noção de que o país não é capaz de implantar com sucesso um programa de fiscalização eficaz impedem a implantação de sistemas biologicamente sustentáveis, economicamente viáveis e socialmente justificáveis de uso da fauna silvestre. Isto só poderá mudar através da formação adequada de recursos humanos, da descentralização da pesquisa e do uso da infraestrutura já existente de extensão para a implantação de um Serviço de Fauna. No presente artigo, fatores normalmente relacionados ao sucesso de programas de uso econômico da fauna silvestre são apresentados e exemplos reais envolvendo crocodilianos são discutidos.

Wildlife management and conservation usually require case-by-case studies because populations - not species - should in most cases be the management unit. In Brazil, the lack of a specific professional career such as the north American wildlife biologist makes the implantation of wildlife management programs difficult. Urban prejudice against the use of wildlife as a renewable resource, the abuse of captive breeding programs, and the feeling that the country is unable to implement effective control systems over harvest programs prevent the establishment of biologically sustainable, economically viable, and socially justifiable use of wildlife. This can only be changed by adequate training of professionals,decentralized research, and the use of existing infrastructure of extension for the implantation of a wildlife service. In this paper, elements usually related to the success of economic wildlife programs are presented, and real cases of crocodilian management and conservation programs around the world are discussed as examples.

No presente artigo, um caso de predação de ovelhas por pumas é apresentado e usado como exemplo para o cálculo de danos e do custo da compensação econômica como medida mitigadora dos conflitos entre a conservação da fauna e a produção animal no Brasil. As vantagens deste tipo de medida em relação a outras são discutidas no contexto brasileiro.

In this article a case of sheep predation by pumas is presented and used as an example for evaluating the damage and the cost of economic compensation mitigating action for the conflicts between wildlife conservation and livestock production in Brazil. The relative advantages of this kind of action are discussed, considering the Brazilian scenario.

The remaining portion of the Atlantic Forest within the State of Sao Paulo is highly fragmented and most of the remainders are wrapped up in an essentially agricultural mosaic. This study aims at the local surveying of non-volant mammals, including their distribution and relative abundance within the human-altered environments of campus "Luiz de Queiroz", University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, São Paulo State, Brazil, an urbanized area bordered by two highways and the Piracicaba River. The landscape of the study area is characterized by a mosaic of small forest fragments surrounded by pastures, agriculture, and planted forests. Small mammals were captured from February to October, 2001, with an effort of 7056 day-traps, sampling the most representative environments of the campus: planted Eucalyptus (L'Héritier) and Pinus (Shaw) forests, native forest fragment, meadow, rubber tree (Hevea sp.) plantation, agriculture and pasture area. Occurrence of medium and large frame mammals was recorded daily (morning and afternoon) from November of 2000 to October of 2001 along a trail set up to merge the studied environments. Sixteen species of non-volant mammals were recorded, ten of medium or big body-size, and six of small body-size. Capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris (Linnaeus, 1766)) and coati (Nasua nasua (Linnaeus, 1766)) were the most abundant species.