ABSTRACT Simulation models are efficient tools to predict the fate of different solutes in agricultural soils. This work aimed to compare measured and predicted glyphosate and AMPA (aminomethyl phosphonic acid; its main metabolite) contents in a soil under no-tillage (NT), and conventional tillage (CT); and to compare the predictions considering constant and time-variable hydraulic properties. Additionally, we evaluated the ability of the model to predict glyphosate and AMPA accumulation during the crop cycle. Hydrus 1-D code was used to predict the glyphosate and AMPA dynamics, considering constant and time-variable hydraulic properties during the studied crop cycle. In general, the prediction of glyphosate and AMPA distribution along the soil profile using HYDRUS 1-D was satisfactory; however, an overestimation of both compounds was observed in the first 0.20 m of the soil probably because of the preferential flow. Additionally, the accumulation process of glyphosate and AMPA in the soil during the crop cycle was underestimated by HYDRUS 1-D, as compared with the observed field data. Simulated data show that higher values of K0 increase the risk of glyphosate and AMPA vertical transport. The inclusion of temporal variation of hydraulic properties in glyphosate and AMPA simulation did not improve the simulation performance, showing that the model is more sensitive to the parameters related to the solutes. From the obtained results, HYDRUS 1-D code allowed to predict glyphosate and AMPA dynamics reasonably well in agricultural soils of the Argentinean Pampas region and is a potential model to give support in the analysis of the environmental risk of leaching and soil contamination.

ABSTRACT The massive adoption of no-tillage (NT), along with the simplification of the cropping sequences has led to physical and chemical degradation of soils. To recover degraded soils, cover crops have been proposed as an alternative to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) and to improve soil physical quality (SPQ). This study aimed (i) to determine the content of SOC and its physical and chemical fractions at different layers and positions, in a soil with a soybean crop under NT with and without winter cover crops, and (ii) to determine SPQ indicators in a soybean crop under NT with and without winter cover crops. Measures and samples were made on a field experiment in a typical Argiudoll of the Argentinean Pampas. Soil organic carbon, coarse and fine particulate organic carbon (POCc and POCf), mineral associated organic carbon (MOC), fulvic acids (FA), humic acids (HA), and humins (H) were determined. Soil physical quality indicators determined were: soil bulk density and total porosity from field samples, and saturated hydraulic conductivity, water-conducting macro and mesoporosity, and total porosity connectivity from field water infiltration data. After eight years, cover crops did not cause any observable change in whole SOC content, but significant differences were observed for some SOC fractions. Humic acids and POCc had 40 and 25 % increases, respectively, in the cover crop treatment. Mineral associated organic carbon and H decreased by 9 and 7 % in cover crop treatment. Soil physical quality did not improve after eight years of cover crops. This can be related to degradation processes after 20 years of soybean monoculture under NT, and to the low ability of Argiudolls to recover from physical degradation.

ABSTRACT: Determination of soil physical quality (SPQ) is very important because it is related to many important soil processes. However, it is not clear which indicators should be considered in this evaluation, and information about temporal variation of SPQ under different soil tillage systems is scarce. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of no tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) on temporal variation of capacity SPQ indicators [bulk density (BD), macroporosity (Pmac), air capacity (AC), plant available water capacity (PAWC), relative field capacity (RFC), Dexter's (S), and structural stability index (SSI)], and dynamic SPQ indicators [field saturated hydraulic conductivity (K0), water-conducting macroporosity (εma), and mesoporosity (εme); and pore continuity indexes based on water flux of total porosity (CWTP), of macroporosity (CWmac), and of mesoporosity (Cwmes)]. Additionally, the effect of the soil management system on corn yield was evaluated. Measurements and determinations were made at four different moments/cropping stages in the corn growing season (BS: before seeding; V6: six leaf stage; R5: physiological maturity; and AH: after harvest). Capacity SPQ indicators were derived from the soil water retention curve determined using sand box and pressure chambers, and dynamic SPQ indicators were derived from field infiltration data measured using a tension disc infiltrometer. Most capacity SPQ indicators were affected by the moment/cropping stage in which samples were taken, but followed similar trends and had similar values under both treatments, particularly in the AH stage. Dynamic SPQ indicators varied differently during the growing season depending on the management system. Under NT, most dynamic indicators increase from BS to V6 and decrease again at AH, whereas under CT, they follow a different trend, decreasing from BS to V6, remaining constant until R5, and increasing at AH. Corn yield was lower under CT (NT: 10,939 kg ha−1; CT: 8,265 kg ha−1). These results emphasize the need to include dynamic SPQ indicators, and their temporal variation when evaluating cropping systems with the aim of modeling crop yields. The capacity SPQ indicators were not able to distinguish between treatments.

ABSTRACT The concept of soil physical quality (SPQ) is currently under discussion, and an agreement about which soil physical properties should be included in the SPQ characterization has not been reached. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the ability of SPQ indicators based on static and dynamic soil properties to assess the effects of two loosening treatments (chisel plowing to 0.20 m [ChT] and subsoiling to 0.35 m [DL]) on a soil under NT and to compare the performance of static- and dynamic-based SPQ indicators to define soil proper soil conditions for soybean yield. Soil sampling and field determinations were carried out after crop harvest. Soil water retention curve was determined using a tension table, and field infiltration was measured using a tension disc infiltrometer. Most dynamic SPQ indicators (field saturated hydraulic conductivity, K0, effective macroporosity, εma, total connectivity and macroporosity indexes [CwTP and Cwmac]) were affected by the studied treatments, and were greater for DL compared to NT and ChT (K0 values were 2.17, 2.55, and 4.37 cm h-1 for NT, ChT, and DL, respectively). However, static SPQ indicators (calculated from the water retention curve) were not capable of distinguishing effects among treatments. Crop yield was significantly lower for the DL treatment (NT: 2,400 kg ha-1; ChT: 2,358 kg ha-1; and DL: 2,105 kg ha1), in agreement with significantly higher values of the dynamic SPQ indicators, K0, εma, CwTP, and Cwmac, in this treatment. The results support the idea that SPQ indicators based on static properties are not capable of distinguishing tillage effects and predicting crop yield, whereas dynamic SPQ indicators are useful for distinguishing tillage effects and can explain differences in crop yield when used together with information on weather conditions. However, future studies, monitoring years with different weather conditions, would be useful for increasing knowledge on this topic.

A compactação do solo tem sido reconhecida como um problema grave na agricultura mecanizada, influenciando em várias propriedades e processos do solo. Poucos são os relatos dos efeitos dessa compactação ao longo do tempo; a evolução da compactação do solo tem sido demonstrada por um número limitado de atributos do solo. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar a persistência dos efeitos da compactação do solo (três tratamentos com tráfego de máquina agrícola, sendo: T0, sem tráfego; T3, com três passadas de trator; e T5, cinco passadas de trator) na configuração do sistema poroso, utilizando determinações estáticas e dinâmicas; e determinar as mudanças na orientação do sistema poroso do solo após a compactação, utilizando os valores de condutividade hidráulica do solo saturado, em amostras coletadas na vertical e horizontal. O tráfego causou alterações em todos os indicadores dinâmicos estudados (condutividade hidráulica do solo saturado, K0; e macro e mesoporosidade efetiva do solo, εma e εme), com valores significativamente baixos de K0, εma e εme no tratamento T5. Já os valores dos indicadores estáticos como a densidade do solo, a porosidade total derivada do solo e a macroporosidade total (θma) não apresentaram variação significativa entre os tratamentos. Esse é um indicativo que o tráfego de máquinas não influenciou na alteração dessas variáveis após dois anos. Já na orientação do sistema poroso do solo, mesmo em T0, ocorreram maiores alterações em K0 medidas nas amostras coletadas na vertical do que os valores medidos na horizontal, sendo mais relacionados à presença de bioporos na vertical e à isotropia de K0 nos tratamentos onde houve tráfego de máquinas. Assim, os resultados evidenciaram que os indicadores dinâmicos são mais sensíveis aos efeitos da compactação e que, futuramente, os indicadores estáticos não serão utilizados como indicadores da compactação do solo, sem a necessidade do complemento de indicadores dinâmicos.

Soil compaction has been recognized as a severe problem in mechanized agriculture and has an influence on many soil properties and processes. Yet, there are few studies on the long-term effects of soil compaction, and the development of soil compaction has been shown through a limited number of soil parameters. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the persistence of soil compaction effects (three traffic treatments: T0, without traffic; T3, three tractor passes; and T5, five tractor passes) on pore system configuration, through static and dynamic determinations; and to determine changes in soil pore orientation due to soil compaction through measurement of hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil in samples taken vertically and horizontally. Traffic led to persistent changes in all the dynamic indicators studied (saturated hydraulic conductivity, K0; effective macro- and mesoporosity, εma and εme), with significantly lower values of K0, εma, and εme in the T5 treatment. The static indicators of bulk density (BD), derived total porosity (TP), and total macroporosity (θma) did not vary significantly among the treatments. This means that machine traffic did not produce persistent changes on these variables after two years. However, the orientation of the soil pore system was modified by traffic. Even in T0, there were greater changes in K0 measured in the samples taken vertically than horizontally, which was more related to the presence of vertical biopores, and to isotropy of K0 in the treatments with machine traffic. Overall, the results showed that dynamic indicators are more sensitive to the effects of compaction and that, in the future, static indicators should not be used as compaction indicators without being complemented by dynamic indicators.

Nos últimos anos, o sistema plantio direto (NT) tem aumentado. Alguns autores indicam que os atributos físicos do solo ficam estáveis após anos cultivando nesse sistema, sendo esse fato discutido por outros autores. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito do último cultivo após a rotação (1º ano: milho; 2º ano: soja; e 3º ano: trigo/soja) sobre a configuração do sistema poroso do solo e das suas propriedades hidráulicas de diferentes tipos de textura (solo 1: franco; e solo 2: franco-arenoso) da região do pampa argentino, em NT por um longo prazo, para determinar se a estabilidade das propriedades físicas do solo independe do momento da rotação. Adicionalmente, foram comparados os procedimentos para avaliar a macroporosidade, bem como avaliada a eficiência da função de pedotransferência ROSETTA, para estimar os parâmetros do modelo de van Genuchten-Mualen (VGM) desses solos. A configuração do sistema poroso do solo e as propriedades hidráulicas não foram estáveis e se alteraram em razão da rotação da cultura e do último cultivo utilizado na rotação em ambos os solos. Nos dois locais, a condutividade hidráulica do solo saturado (K0), a macroporosidade (εma) e o raio médio ponderado do poro por fluxo (R0ma) aumentaram do 1º para o 2º ano da rotação de culturas e isso se atribuiu ao aumento de macroporos condutores de água pra as raízes de milho. O modelo VGM descreveu adequadamente a curva de retenção de água (WCR) nos dois solos, porém não foi adequada para as curvas de condutividade hidráulica (K) vs tensão (h). A função ROSETTA não foi eficiente para a estimativa dos parâmetros. Em resumo, os valores médios de K0 variaram entre 0,74 e 3,88 cm h-1. Com relação às propriedades físicas do solo no NT, o efeito do cultivo deve ser considerado.

The area under the no-tillage system (NT) has been increasing over the last few years. Some authors indicate that stabilization of soil physical properties is reached after some years under NT while other authors debate this. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of the last crop in the rotation sequence (1st year: maize, 2nd year: soybean, 3rd year: wheat/soybean) on soil pore configuration and hydraulic properties in two different soils (site 1: loam, site 2: sandy loam) from the Argentinean Pampas region under long-term NT treatments in order to determine if stabilization of soil physical properties is reached apart from a specific time in the crop sequence. In addition, we compared two procedures for evaluating water-conducting macroporosities, and evaluated the efficiency of the pedotransfer function ROSETTA in estimating the parameters of the van Genuchten-Mualem (VGM) model in these soils. Soil pore configuration and hydraulic properties were not stable and changed according to the crop sequence and the last crop grown in both sites. For both sites, saturated hydraulic conductivity, K0, water-conducting macroporosity, εma, and flow-weighted mean pore radius, R0ma, increased from the 1st to the 2nd year of the crop sequence, and this was attributed to the creation of water-conducting macropores by the maize roots. The VGM model adequately described the water retention curve (WRC) for these soils, but not the hydraulic conductivity (K) vs tension (h) curve. The ROSETTA function failed in the estimation of these parameters. In summary, mean values of K0 ranged from 0.74 to 3.88 cm h-1. In studies on NT effects on soil physical properties, the crop effect must be considered.

A importância da macroporosidade para o transporte de água no solo faz a sua avaliação de forma quantitativa uma tarefa desafiadora. Os valores da condutividade hidráulica (K) do solo em diferentes potenciais de retenção de água no solo e a quantificação de macroporos condutores de água (θM) em diferentes sistemas de preparo do solo proporcionarão melhor compreensão dos efeitos no arranjo de poros e nas propriedades físico-hídricas do solo. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos de um preparo convencional do solo com arado de aivecas (CT), com subsolador (CP) e utilizando um sistema com plantio direto (NT) sobre os atributos θM e K, bem como quantificar a contribuição da macroporosidade para o fluxo total de água em um solo franco. Um infiltrômetro de tensão no solo foi utilizado para emitir duas pressões ascendentes de água (-5 cm e 0 cm) para inferir θM e K, durante o pousio. A macroporosidade foi determinada com base na contribuição do fluxo entre os potenciais de água de 0 e -5 cm (K0 e K5, respectivamente), de acordo com a equação de Hagen-Poiseuille. Os valores da K0 obtidos foram estatisticamente superiores no preparo CT, quando comparados aos valores do NT e do CP. Os valores da K5 não diferiram estatisticamente entre os tipos de preparo. Os valores médios da K variaram entre 0,20 e 3,70 cm/h. A quantificação de macroporos condutores de água (θM) foi significativamente superior para o preparo CT em relação aos preparos CP e NT, seguindo a mesma tendência da K0. Não foram detectadas diferenças significativas dos valores de θM entre os preparos CP e NT. Utilizando o preparo CT, foi possível a formação de macroporos condutores de água com persistência até a pós-colheita; já no preparo CP, os macroporos condutores de água não foram persistentes. Os resultados apresentados sustentam a hipótese de que o sistema de preparo do solo escolhido altera o movimento da água no solo, principalmente, devido à formação de macroporos condutores de água. Estudos futuros sobre o efeito do sistema de preparo relacionado ao movimento da água no solo devem-se concentrar nas condições de formação da macroporosidade do solo.

In view of the importance of the macroporosity for the water transport properties of soils, its quantitative assessment is a challenging task. Measurements of hydraulic conductivity (K) at different soil water tensions and the quantification of water-conducting macropores (θM) of a soil under different tillage systems could help understand the effects on the soil porous system and related hydraulic properties. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of Conventional Tillage (CT), Chisel Plow (CP) and No Tillage (NT) on θM and on K; and to quantify the contribution of macroporosity to total water flux in a loam soil. A tension disc infiltrometer was used at two soil water pressure heads (-5 cm, and 0) to infer θM and K, during fallow. Macroporosity was determined based on the flow contribution between 0 and -5 cm water potentials (K0, K5, respectively), according to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The K0 values were statistically higher for CT than for NT and CP. The K5 values did not differ statistically among treatments. The mean K values varied between 0.20 and 3.70 cm/h. For CT, θM was significantly greater than for CP and NT, following the same trend as K0. No differences in θM were detected between CP and NT. With CT, the formation of water-conducting macropores with persistence until post-harvest was possible, while under CP preparation, the water-conducting macropores were not persistent. These results support the idea that tillage affects the soil water movement mainly by the resulting water-conducting macropores. Future studies on tillage effects on water movement should focus on macroporosity.