Abstract Although Rallidae is the most diverse family within Gruiformes, there is little information concerning the karyotype of the species in this group. In fact, Gallinula melanops, a species of Rallidae found in Brazil, is among the few species studied cytogenetically, but only with conventional staining and repetitive DNA mapping, showing 2n=80. Thus, in order to understand the karyotypic evolution and phylogeny of this group, the present study aimed to analyze the karyotype of G. melanops by classical and molecular cytogenetics, comparing the results with other species of Gruiformes. The results show that G. melanops has the same chromosome rearrangements as described in Gallinula chloropus (Clade Fulica), including fission of ancestral chromosomes 4 and 5 of Gallus gallus (GGA), beyond the fusion between two of segments resultants of the GGA4/GGA5, also fusions between the chromosomes GGA6/GGA7. Thus, despite the fact that some authors have suggested the inclusion of G. melanops in genus Porphyriops, our molecular cytogenetic results confirm its place in the Gallinula genus.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence of transmitted drug-resistant HIV among adults in Panama by using a modified World Health Organization Threshold Survey (WHO-TS) and to investigate rates of initial resistance among HIV-positive infants in Panama. METHODS: At the Gorgas Memorial Institute, 47 HIV-positive adults were genotyped for mutations associated with transmitted drug resistance (TDR) in the reverse transcriptase and protease genes of HIV-1, according to WHO-TS guidelines, modified to include patients ≤ 26 years old. Prevalence rates for drug-resistance mutations against three classes of antiretroviral drugs-nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), and protease inhibitors-were calculated as low (< 5.0%), moderate (5.0%-15.0%), and high (> 15.0%). Twenty-five infant patients were also geno-typed and prevalence rates for drug-resistance mutations were calculated. RESULTS: TDR among Panamanian adults was moderate: 6 of 47 HIV-positive adults showed one or more mutations associated with TDR. Horizontal TDR mutations were moderate for NRTIs and NNRTIs and low for protease inhibitors. Vertical transmission of HIV in Panama has decreased for 2002-2007, but vertical HIV TDR prevalence is moderate (12.0%) and is emerging as a problem due to incomplete antiretroviral coverage in pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of HIV TDR indicated by this study, combined with known rates of HIV infection in Panama, suggests more extensive surveys are needed to identify risk factors associated with transmission of HIV drug resistance. Specific WHO-TS guidelines for monitoring vertical transmission of drug-resistant HIV should be established.

OBJETIVO: Investigar la prevalencia de farmacorresistencia transmitida del VIH en adultos en Panamá mediante un estudio del umbral modificado de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) e investigar las tasas de resistencia inicial en lactantes seropositivos para el VIH en Panamá. MÉTODOS: En el Instituto Conmemorativo Gorgas, en 47 adultos seropositivos al VIH se efectuó la genotipificación de las mutaciones asociadas con la farmacorresistencia transmitida en los genes de la transcriptasa inversa y la proteasa del VIH-1, según las directrices del estudio umbral de la OMS, modificadas para incluir a las personas ≤ 26 años de edad. Las tasas de prevalencia de las mutaciones farmacorresistentes contra tres clases de fármacos antirretroviral -inhibidores de la transcriptasa inversa análogos de nucleósidos, inhibidores de la transcriptasa inversa no análogos de nucleósidos e inhibidores de la proteasa- se clasificaron en bajas (< 5,0%), moderadas (5,0%-15,0%) o altas (> 15,0%). También se llevó a cabo genotipificación y se calcularon las tasas de prevalencia de las mutaciones causantes de farmacorresistencia en 25 lactantes. RESULTADOS: En los adultos de Panamá la farmacorresistencia transmitida fue moderada: 6 de 47 adultos seropositivos para el VIH presentaron una o más mutaciones asociadas con farmacorresistencia transmitida. Las mutaciones farmacorresitentes de transmisión horizontal fueron moderadas para los inhibidores de la transcriptasa inversa análogos de nucleósidos y los inhibidores de la transcriptasa inversa no análogos de nucleósidos, y bajas para los inhibidores de la proteasa. En Panamá la transmisión vertical del VIH ha disminuido en el período 2002-2007, pero la prevalencia de la farmacorresistencia del VIH transmitida por vía vertical es moderada (12,0%) y está surgiendo como un problema debido a la cobertura antirretroviral incompleta durante el embarazo. CONCLUSIONES: La prevalencia de farmacorresistencia transmitida del VIH observada en este estudio, junto con las tasas de infección por el VIH registradas en Panamá, indican que se necesitan estudios más amplios para determinar los factores de riesgo asociados con la transmisión de la farmacorresistencia del VIH. Deben establecerse directrices específicas del estudio del umbral de la OMS a fin de vigilar la transmisión vertical del VIH farmacorresistente.