Chagas is a complex, multidimensional phenomenon in which political, economic, environmental, biomedical, epidemiological, psychological, and sociocultural factors intersect. Nonetheless, the hegemonic conceptualisation has long envisioned Chagas as primarily a biomedical question, while ignoring or downplaying the other dimensions, and this limited view has reinforced the disease’s long neglect. Integrating the multiple dimensions of the problem into a coherent approach adapted to field realities and needs represents an immense challenge, but the payoff is more effective and sustainable experiences, with higher social awareness, increased case detection and follow-up, improved adherence to care, and integrated participation of various actors from multiple action levels. Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) initiatives have great potential for impact in the implementation of multidimensional programs of prevention and control successfully customised to the diverse and complex contexts where Chagas disease persists. political economic environmental epidemiological psychological intersect Nonetheless question diseases s neglect challenge experiences awareness followup, followup follow up, up follow-up care levels Information Education IEC (IEC persists

It is well documented that Chagas disease (CD) can pose a public health problem to countries. As one of the World Health Organization Neglected Tropical Diseases undoubtedly calls for comprehensive healthcare, transcending a restricted biomedical approach. After more than a century since their discovery, in 1909, people affected by CD are still frequently marginalised and/or neglected. The aim of this article is to tell the story of their activism, highlighting key historical experiences and successful initiatives, from 1909 to 2019. The first association was created in 1987, in the city of Recife, Brazil. So far, thirty associations have been reported on five continents. They were created as independent non-profit civil society organisations and run democratically by affected people. Among the common associations’ objectives, we notably find: increase the visibility of the affected; make their voice heard; build bridges between patients, health system professionals, public health officials, policy makers and the academic and scientific communities. The International Federation of Associations of People Affected by CD - FINDECHAGAS, created in 2010 with the input of the Americas, Europe and the Western Pacific, counts as one of the main responses to the globalisation of CD. Despite all the obstacles and difficulties encountered, the Federation has thrived, grown, and matured. As a result of this mobilisation along with the support of many national and international partners, in May 2019 the 72nd World Health Assembly decided to establish World Chagas Disease Day, on 14 April. The associative movement has increased the understanding of the challenges related to the disease and breaks the silence around Chagas disease, improving surveillance, and sustaining engagement towards the United Nations 2030 agenda. (CD countries healthcare approach discovery andor or neglected activism initiatives 190 1987 Recife Brazil far continents nonprofit non profit objectives find heard patients professionals officials communities FINDECHAGAS 201 Americas Pacific encountered thrived grown matured partners nd Day 1 April surveillance 203 agenda 19 198 20 2

Abstract INTRODUCTION Malaria case management is a pivotal intervention in malaria elimination. However, many remote areas in Brazil still lack access to basic health services. This study describes a community-based approach (CBA) for malaria case management in the large remote area of the Jaú National Park (JNP), Amazonas, Brazil. METHODS In 2001, a general health CBA was initiated with a motor group (MG); a participative community health diagnosis (PCHD) was subsequently implemented between 2001 and 2005. In 2006, a CBA for malaria case management started with an expanded MG including all sectors with a stake in malaria control, from the local residents to the federal government. In 2008, community microscopists were selected and trained to diagnose hemoparasites. A full malaria strategy was implemented in 2009 with subsequent quality control follow-up. RESULTS Two educational materials were co-created with local communities. The MG identified malaria as a major health problem and the malaria MG planned the control activities. Ten communities selected a resident to become malaria microscopists, and ten solar-operated health centers were built. The number of slide readings increased from 923 in 2006 to 1,900 in 2009, while malaria infections decreased from 354 cases in 2005 to 20 cases in 2015. The excess time (≥ 48 hours) between first symptoms and diagnosis/treatment decreased from 68.9% of cases in 2005 to 14.3% in 2010. CONCLUSIONS While many factors were likely involved in the reduction of malaria transmission in the JNP, the CBA played an important role in the sustained success of the initiative.

O artigo apresenta um estudo internacional realizado entre outubro de 2011 e janeiro de 2012, no qual se baseou o desenho e elaboração de um vídeo (spot) que tinha como objetivo a sensibilização e promoção da visibilidade da problemática vinculada à doença de Chagas. A pesquisa, de caráter qualitativo, analisou a informação recolhida por meio de 38 questionários respondidos por pessoas afetadas e especialistas sobre a doença. A informação, para cada um dos dois grupos, foi classificada de acordo com os aspectos que as pessoas associavam com a palavra Chagas, e as dificuldades, adversidades, desafios e conquistas vinculadas com a doença. Para cada um dos referidos aspectos, apresenta-se uma análise das respostas, relatos e anedotas. As conclusões reforçam a necessidade de se conhecer e divulgar as dificuldades vividas pelas pessoas afetadas pela doença de Chagas, tendo em mente que se trata de uma realidade que se manifesta de forma diversa dependendo do contexto.

This paper presents an international study that was conducted between October 2011 and January 2012, in which a video (spot) to boost awareness and raise the profile of Chagas disease issues was designed and developed. This study was of qualitative nature and analyzed information that was gathered from 38 questionnaires that had been answered by individuals affected by the disease and by specialists on this disease. The information from each group was classified according to factors that they associated with the word Chagas, along with the difficulties, adversities, challenges, objectives and achievements relating to the disease. The responses, reports and anecdotes relating to each of these factors were analyzed. The conclusions emphasize the need to know and make known the difficulties that people affected by Chagas disease experience, bearing in mind that the realities are manifested differently depending on the context.

El artículo da cuenta de un estudio internacional realizado entre octubre de 2011 y enero de 2012, como fundamento para el diseño y elaboración de un material audiovisual (spot) con el objeto de sensibilizar y visibilizar la problemática del Chagas. La investigación, de carácter cualitativo, recogió los datos de 38 encuestas, respondidas por personas afectadas y especialistas en la temática. La información para cada grupo se ordenó según aspectos que las personas asociaban con la palabra Chagas, y dificultades, retos, desafíos y logros vinculados. Para cada punto se presenta un análisis de las respuestas, relatos y anécdotas relacionadas. Las conclusiones refuerzan la necesidad de conocer y dar a conocer las dificultades que viven las personas afectadas por el Chagas, considerando que se trata de una realidad que tiene diversas manifestaciones dependiendo del contexto.

O artigo apresenta um estudo internacional realizado entre outubro de 2011 e janeiro de 2012, no qual se baseou o desenho e elaboração de um vídeo (spot) que tinha como objetivo a sensibilização e promoção da visibilidade da problemática vinculada à doença de Chagas. A pesquisa, de caráter qualitativo, analisou a informação recolhida por meio de 38 questionários respondidos por pessoas afetadas e especialistas sobre a doença. A informação, para cada um dos dois grupos, foi classificada de acordo com os aspectos que as pessoas associavam com a palavra Chagas, e as dificuldades, adversidades, desafios e conquistas vinculadas com a doença. Para cada um dos referidos aspectos, apresenta-se uma análise das respostas, relatos e anedotas. As conclusões reforçam a necessidade de se conhecer e divulgar as dificuldades vividas pelas pessoas afetadas pela doença de Chagas, tendo em mente que se trata de uma realidade que se manifesta de forma diversa dependendo do contexto.

This paper presents an international study that was conducted between October 2011 and January 2012, in which a video (spot) to boost awareness and raise the profile of Chagas disease issues was designed and developed. This study was of qualitative nature and analyzed information that was gathered from 38 questionnaires that had been answered by individuals affected by the disease and by specialists on this disease. The information from each group was classified according to factors that they associated with the word Chagas, along with the difficulties, adversities, challenges, objectives and achievements relating to the disease. The responses, reports and anecdotes relating to each of these factors were analyzed. The conclusions emphasize the need to know and make known the difficulties that people affected by Chagas disease experience, bearing in mind that the realities are manifested differently depending on the context.

El artículo da cuenta de un estudio internacional realizado entre octubre de 2011 y enero de 2012, como fundamento para el diseño y elaboración de un material audiovisual (spot) con el objeto de sensibilizar y visibilizar la problemática del Chagas. La investigación, de carácter cualitativo, recogió los datos de 38 encuestas, respondidas por personas afectadas y especialistas en la temática. La información para cada grupo se ordenó según aspectos que las personas asociaban con la palabra Chagas, y dificultades, retos, desafíos y logros vinculados. Para cada punto se presenta un análisis de las respuestas, relatos y anécdotas relacionadas. Las conclusiones refuerzan la necesidad de conocer y dar a conocer las dificultades que viven las personas afectadas por el Chagas, considerando que se trata de una realidad que tiene diversas manifestaciones dependiendo del contexto.

Objectives: To describe and compare levels of knowledge about HIV/AIDS and condom use in the immigrant population. Method: We performed a cross-sectional study by means of a semi-structured questionnaire and face-to face interviews in 238 Latin American and Maghrebi users of medical centers in the Barcelona and North Barcelona-Maresme health areas. The questionnaire included sociodemographic variables and questions on sexual behavior and general knowledge about HIV/AIDS, transmission mechanisms, and means of prevention. A logistic regression model was used to identify the determinants of ‘inadequate knowledge of HIV/AIDS'. Results: A total of 53.8% of interviewees had inadequate knowledge of HIV/AIDS. Univariate analysis showed inadequate knowledge to be associated with being from the Maghreb, not living in Barcelona, being without work and not having educational qualifications. Multivariate analysis revealed that the only variables significantly associated with inadequate knowledge were being from the Maghreb as opposed to being from Latin America (OR=4.99; 95% CI: 2.74-5.10) and being unemployed as opposed to being employed (OR=2.59; 95% IC: 1.42-4.73). Condoms were seen as an effective prevention method, but 42.1% of interviewees did not use them in occasional relationships. Conclusions: Knowledge of routes of HIV transmission should be improved and mistaken ideas about infection should be eliminated among Latin American and Maghrebi immigrants. The immigrant population is a vulnerable group that ought to be prioritized to promote prevention programs adapted to its linguistic and cultural specificities.

Objetivo: Describir y comparar el grado de conocimiento sobre el VIH/sida con el uso del preservativo por la población inmigrante. Métodos: Estudio transversal mediante encuesta semiestructurada y entrevista personal realizada en centros asistenciales de las regiones sanitarias de Barcelona y Barcelonés Norte y Maresme a 238 usuarios latinoamericanos y magrebíes en 2003. El cuestionario incluía variables sociodemográficas, de conducta sexual, de conocimientos generales sobre VIH/sida, y sobre la transmisión y la prevención. Para identificar determinantes del "conocimiento inadecuado del VIH/sida" se aplicó un modelo de regresión logística. Resultados: El 53,8% de los encuestados tenían un conocimiento inadecuado del VIH/sida. En el análisis univariado se asociaban con este desconocimiento los magrebíes, los que no vivían en Barcelona, los que no tenían trabajo y los que no tenían estudios; en el multivariado se asociaban los magrebíes con una situación más desfavorecida respecto a los latinoamericanos [odds ratio (OR)=4,99; intervalo de confianza del 95% (IC 95%): 2,73-9,10] y los inmigrantes sin trabajo (OR=2,59; IC 95%: 1,42-4,73). El uso del preservativo fue valorado como un método de prevención eficaz, pero el 42,1% de los encuestados no lo utilizaba en sus relaciones ocasionales. Conclusiones: Es necesario mejorar el conocimiento sobre los mecanismos de transmisión del VIH/sida y eliminar concepciones erróneas de la infección entre los inmigrantes latinoamericanos y magrebíes. La población inmigrante es vulnerable y prioritaria para impulsar intervenciones preventivas, adaptadas a sus especificidades lingüísticas y culturales. Monitorizar la falta de información, las concepciones erróneas y sus conductas sexuales es esencial para evaluar la efectividad de las intervenciones efectuadas.

Objectives: To describe and compare levels of knowledge about HIV/AIDS and condom use in the immigrant population. Method: We performed a cross-sectional study by means of a semi-structured questionnaire and face-to face interviews in 238 Latin American and Maghrebi users of medical centers in the Barcelona and North Barcelona-Maresme health areas. The questionnaire included sociodemographic variables and questions on sexual behavior and general knowledge about HIV/AIDS, transmission mechanisms, and means of prevention. A logistic regression model was used to identify the determinants of ‘inadequate knowledge of HIV/AIDS'. Results: A total of 53.8% of interviewees had inadequate knowledge of HIV/AIDS. Univariate analysis showed inadequate knowledge to be associated with being from the Maghreb, not living in Barcelona, being without work and not having educational qualifications. Multivariate analysis revealed that the only variables significantly associated with inadequate knowledge were being from the Maghreb as opposed to being from Latin America (OR=4.99; 95% CI: 2.74-5.10) and being unemployed as opposed to being employed (OR=2.59; 95% IC: 1.42-4.73). Condoms were seen as an effective prevention method, but 42.1% of interviewees did not use them in occasional relationships. Conclusions: Knowledge of routes of HIV transmission should be improved and mistaken ideas about infection should be eliminated among Latin American and Maghrebi immigrants. The immigrant population is a vulnerable group that ought to be prioritized to promote prevention programs adapted to its linguistic and cultural specificities.

Objetivo: Describir y comparar el grado de conocimiento sobre el VIH/sida con el uso del preservativo por la población inmigrante. Métodos: Estudio transversal mediante encuesta semiestructurada y entrevista personal realizada en centros asistenciales de las regiones sanitarias de Barcelona y Barcelonés Norte y Maresme a 238 usuarios latinoamericanos y magrebíes en 2003. El cuestionario incluía variables sociodemográficas, de conducta sexual, de conocimientos generales sobre VIH/sida, y sobre la transmisión y la prevención. Para identificar determinantes del "conocimiento inadecuado del VIH/sida" se aplicó un modelo de regresión logística. Resultados: El 53,8% de los encuestados tenían un conocimiento inadecuado del VIH/sida. En el análisis univariado se asociaban con este desconocimiento los magrebíes, los que no vivían en Barcelona, los que no tenían trabajo y los que no tenían estudios; en el multivariado se asociaban los magrebíes con una situación más desfavorecida respecto a los latinoamericanos [odds ratio (OR)=4,99; intervalo de confianza del 95% (IC 95%): 2,73-9,10] y los inmigrantes sin trabajo (OR=2,59; IC 95%: 1,42-4,73). El uso del preservativo fue valorado como un método de prevención eficaz, pero el 42,1% de los encuestados no lo utilizaba en sus relaciones ocasionales. Conclusiones: Es necesario mejorar el conocimiento sobre los mecanismos de transmisión del VIH/sida y eliminar concepciones erróneas de la infección entre los inmigrantes latinoamericanos y magrebíes. La población inmigrante es vulnerable y prioritaria para impulsar intervenciones preventivas, adaptadas a sus especificidades lingüísticas y culturales. Monitorizar la falta de información, las concepciones erróneas y sus conductas sexuales es esencial para evaluar la efectividad de las intervenciones efectuadas.

Background: Given the increasing flux of immigrant population from high-risk areas to our country, the need of screening for loasis arises, despite systematic screening being a debated and poorly evaluated practice to wich there is no protocol. This study is aimed at identifying the population to which loasis screening would be most appropriate, by drawing a comparison among four alternatives. Methods: Case and control group study, involving 30 cases (all those who came to our unit for treatment and who tested positive for Loa Loa in a microfilariae in the blood detection test) and 90 control cases (three controls per case from among the subjects having tested negative for microfilariae in the blood chosen at random without any pairing criteria). Results: Of the 1,638 subjects on whom the microfilariae blood test was performed, 30 tested positive (1.8%; 1.2-2.6%). Of these 30 cases of loasis, 76.7% (23;57.7-90.1%) had eosinophylia (OR 8.8; 3.3-23.1; p<0.0001) and 30.0% (9;14.7-49.4%) compatible clinical symptoms (OR 2.8; 1.0-7.5; p=0.04). If we were to apply the screening test to the entire immigrant population coming from endemic areas, we would have to perform 54.6 tests to detect one case. It we were to perform the test on patients showing eosinophylia and/or compatible clinical symptoms, we would have to perform a smaller number of tests for every case detected (NNS=29; IC=21-48), but there would be 16.7% (5;5.7-34.7%) false negatives. Conclusions: Conducting a screening test with determination of microfilariae in the blood on the immigrant population coming from Central and West Africa, independently of the presence of eosinophylia or compatible clinical symptoms, would be indicated, provided that the necessary resources are available.

Fundamento: Dada la creciente afluencia de población inmigrante originaria de zonas de riesgo a nuestro país se plantea la necesidad de realizar cribaje para loasis, aunque el cribaje sistemático es una práctica discutida, poco evaluada y aún no protocolizada. El objetivo de este estudio es identificar la población en la que es más adecuado realizar el cribado de loasis, comparando 4 alternativas. Métodos: Estudio de casos y controles, con 30 casos (todos los que consultaron en nuestra Unidad y con un test de detección de microfilaremia positivo para Loa loa) y 90 controles (tres controles por caso de entre los sujetos con microfilaremia negativa, escogidos aleatoriamente y sin criterios de apareamiento). Resultados: De los 1.638 sujetos a los que se realizó la prueba de microfilaremia 30 (1,8%;1,2-2,6%) resultaron positivos. De estos 30 casos con loasis 76,7% (23;57,7-90,1%) presentaban eosinofilia (OR 8,8; 3,3-23,1; p<0,0001) y un 30,0% (9;14,7-49,4%) presentaba clínica (OR 2,8; 1,0-7,5; p=0,04). Si aplicáramos el test de cribado a toda la población inmigrante procedente de áreas endémicas deberíamos realizar 54,6 pruebas para detectar un caso. Si lo realizáramos en sujetos que presentan eosinofilia y/o clínica compatible, el número de pruebas que deberíamos realizar para cada caso detectado sería inferior (NNS=29; IC=21-48) pero habría un 16,7% (5;5,7-34,7%) de falsos negativos. Conclusiones: Estaría indicado practicar un test de cribado con determinación de microfilaremia a la población inmigrante procedente de Africa Central y Oeste, independientemente de la presencia de eosinofilia o clínica compatible, siempre que se disponga de los recursos necesarios.

Background: Given the increasing flux of immigrant population from high-risk areas to our country, the need of screening for loasis arises, despite systematic screening being a debated and poorly evaluated practice to wich there is no protocol. This study is aimed at identifying the population to which loasis screening would be most appropriate, by drawing a comparison among four alternatives. Methods: Case and control group study, involving 30 cases (all those who came to our unit for treatment and who tested positive for Loa Loa in a microfilariae in the blood detection test) and 90 control cases (three controls per case from among the subjects having tested negative for microfilariae in the blood chosen at random without any pairing criteria). Results: Of the 1,638 subjects on whom the microfilariae blood test was performed, 30 tested positive (1.8%; 1.2-2.6%). Of these 30 cases of loasis, 76.7% (23;57.7-90.1%) had eosinophylia (OR 8.8; 3.3-23.1; p<0.0001) and 30.0% (9;14.7-49.4%) compatible clinical symptoms (OR 2.8; 1.0-7.5; p=0.04). If we were to apply the screening test to the entire immigrant population coming from endemic areas, we would have to perform 54.6 tests to detect one case. It we were to perform the test on patients showing eosinophylia and/or compatible clinical symptoms, we would have to perform a smaller number of tests for every case detected (NNS=29; IC=21-48), but there would be 16.7% (5;5.7-34.7%) false negatives. Conclusions: Conducting a screening test with determination of microfilariae in the blood on the immigrant population coming from Central and West Africa, independently of the presence of eosinophylia or compatible clinical symptoms, would be indicated, provided that the necessary resources are available.

Fundamento: Dada la creciente afluencia de población inmigrante originaria de zonas de riesgo a nuestro país se plantea la necesidad de realizar cribaje para loasis, aunque el cribaje sistemático es una práctica discutida, poco evaluada y aún no protocolizada. El objetivo de este estudio es identificar la población en la que es más adecuado realizar el cribado de loasis, comparando 4 alternativas. Métodos: Estudio de casos y controles, con 30 casos (todos los que consultaron en nuestra Unidad y con un test de detección de microfilaremia positivo para Loa loa) y 90 controles (tres controles por caso de entre los sujetos con microfilaremia negativa, escogidos aleatoriamente y sin criterios de apareamiento). Resultados: De los 1.638 sujetos a los que se realizó la prueba de microfilaremia 30 (1,8%;1,2-2,6%) resultaron positivos. De estos 30 casos con loasis 76,7% (23;57,7-90,1%) presentaban eosinofilia (OR 8,8; 3,3-23,1; p<0,0001) y un 30,0% (9;14,7-49,4%) presentaba clínica (OR 2,8; 1,0-7,5; p=0,04). Si aplicáramos el test de cribado a toda la población inmigrante procedente de áreas endémicas deberíamos realizar 54,6 pruebas para detectar un caso. Si lo realizáramos en sujetos que presentan eosinofilia y/o clínica compatible, el número de pruebas que deberíamos realizar para cada caso detectado sería inferior (NNS=29; IC=21-48) pero habría un 16,7% (5;5,7-34,7%) de falsos negativos. Conclusiones: Estaría indicado practicar un test de cribado con determinación de microfilaremia a la población inmigrante procedente de Africa Central y Oeste, independientemente de la presencia de eosinofilia o clínica compatible, siempre que se disponga de los recursos necesarios.

Tuberculosis is a prehistoric American human disease. This paper reviews the literature and discusses hypotheses for origins and epidemiological patterns of prehistoric tuberculosis. From the last decades, 24 papers about prehistoric tuberculosis were published and 133 cases were reviewed. In South America most are isolated case studies, contrary to North America where more skeletal series were analyzed. Disease was usually located at the deserts of Chile and Peru, Central Plains in USA, and Lake Ontario in Canada. Skeletal remains represent most of the cases, but 16 mummies have also been described. Thirty individuals had lung disease, 19 of them diagnosed by the ribs. More then 100 individuals had osseous tuberculosis and 26 also had it in other organs. As today, transmission of the infection and establishment of the disease were favored by cultural and life-style changes such as sedentarization, crowding, undernutrition, use of dark and insulated houses, and by the frequency of interpersonal contacts. The papers confirm that despite previous perceptions, tuberculosis seems to have occured in America for millennia. It only had epidemiological expression when special conditions favored its expansion. Occurring as epidemic bursts or low endemic disease, it had differential impact on groups or social segments in America for at least two millennia.