The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalence of Haemophilus influenzaetype b (Hib) nasopharyngeal (NP) colonisation among healthy children where Hib vaccination using a 3p+0 dosing schedule has been routinely administered for 10 years with sustained coverage (> 90%). NP swabs were collected from 2,558 children who had received the Hib vaccine, of whom 1,379 were 12-< 24 months (m) old and 1,179 were 48-< 60 m old. Hi strains were identified by molecular methods. Hi carriage prevalence was 45.1% (1,153/2,558) and the prevalence in the 12-< 24 m and 48-< 60 m age groups were 37.5% (517/1,379) and 53.9% (636/1,179), respectively. Hib was identified in 0.6% (16/2,558) of all children in the study, being 0.8% (11/1,379) and 0.4% (5/1,179) among the 12-< 24 m and 48-< 60 m age groups, respectively. The nonencapsulate Hi colonisation was 43% (n = 1,099) and was significantly more frequent at 48-< 60 m of age (51.6%, n = 608) compared with that at 12-< 24 m of age (35.6%, n = 491). The overall resistance rates to ampicillin and chloramphenicol were 16.5% and 3.7%, respectively; the co-resistance was detected in 2.6%. Our findings showed that the Hib carrier rate in healthy children under five years was very low after 10 years of the introduction of the Hib vaccine.

Comparamos crianças menores de cinco anos com pneumonia pneumocócica bacterêmica (PPB) àquelas com empiema pneumocócico (EP) quanto aos achados clínicos, radiológicos e laboratoriais. Um estudo de coorte aninhado transversal, com 102 crianças com EP e 128 com PPB, foi realizado em 12 centros na Argentina, no Brasil e na República Dominicana. Nas crianças com EP, a média de idade e a duração da doença foram maiores. Taquipneia, dispneia e contagem de leucócitos alta foram mais comuns nas crianças com EP; febre e letargia foram mais comuns naquelas com PPB. Parece possível distinguir crianças com EP de crianças com PPB a partir de achados clínicos e laboratoriais. Como essas duas doenças estão associadas a altas taxas de morbidade e mortalidade, o diagnóstico rápido é crucial.

We compared bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia (BPP) and pneumococcal empyema (PE), in terms of clinical, radiological, and laboratory findings, in under-fives. A cross-sectional nested cohort study, involving under-fives (102 with PE and 128 with BPP), was conducted at 12 centers in Argentina, Brazil, and the Dominican Republic. Among those with PE, mean age was higher; disease duration was longer; and tachypnea, dyspnea, and high leukocyte counts were more common. Among those with BPP, fever and lethargy were more common. It seems that children with PE can be distinguished from those with BPP on the basis of clinical and laboratory findings. Because both conditions are associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality, prompt diagnosis is crucial.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of pneumococcal serotypes and antimicrobial susceptibility in patients with meningitis, and to evaluate the implications for vaccine coverage. METHODS: Pneumococcal strains obtained from normally sterile fluids from patients admitted with meningitis were isolated at the Hospital de Clínicas of the Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Minas Gerais State, and sent to the Instituto Adolfo Lutz, city of São Paulo, São Paulo State, for further identification, serotyping, and antimicrobial susceptibility determination. RESULTS: From April 1999 to April 2009, 338 pneumococcal strains were isolated, and 72 obtained from patients with meningitis, were analyzed. Patients' ages varied from one month to 82.2 years (mean of 18.4 ± 22.9 years; median of 5.2 years) and 46 (63.9%) patients were male. Strains were isolated from cerebrospinal fluid [66 occasions (91.7%)] and blood [6 occasions (8.3%)]. The most commonly identified serotypes were 14, 19F, 3, 7F, 6A, 6B, 10A, 18C, 23F, 5, and 34. Of the 20 [27.8%] oxacillin-resistant strains, 17 [23.6%] were resistant to penicillin and nine [12.5%] to ceftriaxone, both resistance patterns being more common in children aged two years or less and during the 2005-2009 period. CONCLUSIONS: Resistance to penicillin and ceftriaxone was detected in 23.6% and 12.5% of the strains, respectively, and predominated in children aged two years or less and during the 2005-2009 period. There were 24 different serotypes of pneumococcus and 79.8% of the serotypes were represented in the 7-valent conjugated vaccine [PVC7].

OBJETIVOS: Identificar os sorotipos de pneumococo mais frequentemente isolados de crianças internadas com pneumonia invasiva, comparar os sorotipos com os incluídos em vacinas conjugadas e analisar sua sensibilidade aos antimicrobianos mais utilizados na faixa etária pediátrica. MÉTODOS: Estudo descritivo, retrospectivo das pneumonias pneumocócicas identificadas em crianças internadas no hospital universitário da Universidade de São Paulo, no período de janeiro de 2003 a outubro de 2008. Os critérios de inclusão foram: faixa etária de 29 dias até 15 anos incompletos com diagnóstico clínico e radiológico de pneumonia e com cultura de sangue e/ou líquido pleural com crescimento de Streptococcus pneumoniae. RESULTADOS: Foram incluídas no estudo 107 crianças. Os sorotipos mais frequentes foram: 14 (36,5%), 1 (16,7%), 5 (14,6%), 6B (6,3%) e 3 (4,2%). A proporção de sorotipos contidos na vacina conjugada heptavalente seria de 53,1%, na vacina 10-valente de 86,5% e na 13-valente seria de 96,9%. De acordo com os padrões do Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute 2008, 100 cepas (93,5%) de pneumococos foram sensíveis à penicilina (concentração inibitória mínima, CIM < 2 µg/mL), 7 cepas (6,5%) com resistência intermediária (CIM = 4 µg/mL) e nenhuma com resistência (CIM > 8 µg/mL). Verificamos alta taxa de sensibilidade para as cepas testadas para vancomicina, rifampicina, ceftriaxone, clindamicina, cloranfenicol e eritromicina. CONCLUSÕES: Nossos resultados confirmam um expressivo impacto potencial das vacinas conjugadas, principalmente pela 10-valente e 13-valente, sobre os casos de pneumonias invasivas. Os resultados de sensibilidade à penicilina evidenciam que a opção terapêutica de escolha para o tratamento das pneumonias invasivas continua sendo a penicilina.

OBJECTIVES: To identify the most common pneumococcal serotypes in children hospitalized with invasive pneumonia, correlate isolated serotypes with those included in conjugate vaccines, and ascertain the sensitivity of the isolated pneumococcal strains to penicillin and other antibiotics. METHODS: From January 2003 to October 2008, a retrospective study of hospitalized children with a diagnosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia was conducted at the university hospital of Universidade de São Paulo. Criteria for inclusion were: age greater than 29 days and less than 15 years, radiological and clinical diagnosis of pneumonia, and isolation of Streptococcus pneumoniae in blood cultures and/or pleural effusion. RESULTS: The study included 107 children. The most common serotypes were 14 (36.5%), 1 (16%), 5 (14.6%), 6B (6.3%) and 3 (4.2%). The proportion of identified serotypes contained in the heptavalent, 10-valent and 13-valent conjugate vaccines was 53.1, 86.5, and 96.9%, respectively. Pneumococcal strains were sensitive to penicillin (minimum inhibitory concentration, MIC < 2 µg/mL) in 100 cases (93.5%) and displayed intermediate resistance (MIC = 4 µg/mL) in 7 cases (6.5%). No strains were penicillin-resistant (MIC > 8 µg/mL) according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute 2008 standards. Tested isolates were highly sensitive to vancomycin, rifampicin, ceftriaxone, clindamycin, erythromycin, and chloramphenicol. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm a significant potential impact of conjugate vaccines, mainly 10-valent and 13-valent, on invasive pneumonia. Furthermore, susceptibility testing results show that penicillin is still the treatment of choice for invasive pneumonia in our setting.

Objetivo. Determinar la evolución de la resistencia a la eritromicina, el cloranfenicol, el trimetoprim-sulfametozaxol (SXT) y la vancomicina de aislamientos invasores de Streptococcus pneumoniae obtenidos de niños de 10 países de América Latina y del Caribe en seis años de vigilancia. Métodos. Se analizaron 8 993 aislamientos de S. pneumoniae recuperados entre 2000 y 2005 de niños menores de 6 años con infecciones invasoras, procedentes de Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, México, Paraguay, República Dominicana, Uruguay y Venezuela. La sensibilidad a los antibióticos se determinó mediante los métodos establecidos y estandarizados en el proyecto SIREVA. La resistencia a múltiples antibióticos se definió como la resistencia a tres o más familias de antibióticos, de los no betalactámicos analizados en este estudio o de los betalactámicos evaluados en un estudio previo en el que 37,8% de estos aislamientos presentaron sensibilidad disminuida a la penicilina. Resultados. Se encontró algún grado de resistencia al SXT y la eritromicina (56,4% y 15,4% de los aislamientos estudiados, respectivamente) y 4,6% presentó alta resistencia al cloranfenicol. Todos los aislamientos fueron sensibles a la vancomicina. Se observó la mayor frecuencia de resistencia al SXT en los aislamientos de neumonía y a la eritromicina en los casos de sepsis (61,6% y 25,5%, respectivamente; P< 0,01). La mayor frecuencia de resistencia al SXT se observó en Brasil (71,9%) y a la eritromicina en México (38,2%) y Venezuela (32,9%). Los serotipos 14,6B, 19F y 23F fueron los que más frecuentemente se asociaron con la resistencia a los antibióticos estudiados. Conclusiones. Se observó una elevada y creciente frecuencia de aislamientos resistentes al SXT y la eritromicina, y una disminución en la proporción de aislamientos resistentes al cloranfenicol. Estas tendencias mostraron diferencias entre los países estudiados.

Objective. To examine the development of resistance to erythromycin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ), and vancomycin of the invasive isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae obtained from children in 10 Latin American/Caribbean countries during six years of surveillance. Methods. Analysis of 8 993 isolates of S. pneumoniae recovered in 2000-2005 from children with invasive infections, who were less than 6 years of age, and from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Mexico, Paraguay, Uruguay, or Venezuela. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined through the methods established and standardized by the SIREVA project. Multidrug resistance was defined as: resistance to three or more antibiotics of the same class; to the non-beta-lactams analyzed by this study; or, to the beta-lactams evaluated by a previous study, in which 37.8% of these isolates showed decreased susceptibility to penicillin. Results. Some degree of resistance was found to TMP- SMZ and erythromycin (56.4% and 15.4% of the isolates studied, respectively), with 4.6% highly resistant to chloramphenicol. All isolates were susceptible to vancomycin. The highest prevalence of TMP-SMZ resistance was observed in the pneumonia isolates; and that of erythromycin, in cases of sepsis (61.6% and 25.5%, respectively; P < 0.01). The highest prevalence of TMP-SMZ resistance was found in Brazil (71.9%), and that of erythromycin, in Mexico (38.2%) and Venezuela (32.9%). The 14, 6B, 19F, and 23F serotypes were most often associated with resistance to the antibiotics in the study. Conclusions. High and increasing rates of isolates resistant to TMP-SMZ and erythromycin were observed, as well as a decreasing percentage of isolates resistant to chloramphenicol. These trends highlight differences among the countries studied.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o perfil de sorotipos e a sensibilidade aos antimicrobianos de cepas de pneumococo obtidas de crianças e as implicações na formulação de vacinas pneumocócicas. MÉTODOS: Cepas de pneumococo isoladas no Hospital de Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia (MG), a partir de pacientes com doença invasiva, foram enviadas ao Instituto Adolfo Lutz, São Paulo (SP), para confirmação da identificação, sorotipagem e determinação da sensibilidade aos antimicrobianos. RESULTADOS: De abril de 1999 a dezembro de 2008, foram avaliadas 142 cepas de pneumococo obtidas de crianças de até 5 anos de idade. Setenta e cinco (52,8%) eram de pacientes do sexo masculino, e a idade variou de 1 a 60 meses (média de 19±15,4 meses e mediana de 15 meses). Os diagnósticos clínicos mais comuns foram pneumonia [92 casos (64,8%)] e meningite [33 casos (23,2%)], e as principais fontes de recuperação foram sangue [61 amostras (43%)], líquido pleural [52 (36,6%)] e liquor [28 (19,7%)]. Os sorotipos mais comuns foram o 14, 5, 6B, 1, 6A, 18C, 19A, 3, 9V, 19F, 23F, 9N e 10A. Foram detectadas 14 (9,9%) cepas penicilina-resistentes, restritas aos sorotipos 14, 6B, 19F, 19A e 23F e predominantes no período de 2004 a 2008 (p = 0,000). Foi detectada sensibilidade diminuída ao cotrimoxazol (79,5%), à eritromicina e à clindamicina (11,3% cada) e à ceftriaxona (5,6%). CONCLUSÕES: A resistência à penicilina foi detectada em 9,9% das cepas e predominou no período de 2004 a 2008. Foram identificados 20 diferentes sorotipos de pneumococo, e a cifra de cobertura pela vacina 7-valente atualmente disponível (PN CRM7) é de 71,9%.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of serotypes and antimicrobial susceptibility of strains of pneumococcus in children and to evaluate the implications for vaccine formulation. METHODS: Strains of pneumococcus obtained from children admitted with invasive diseases were isolated at Hospital de Clínicas of Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil, and sent to Instituto Adolfo Lutz, São Paulo, Brazil, for further identification, serotyping, and determination of antimicrobial susceptibility. RESULTS: From April 1999 to December 2008, 142 strains of pneumococcus, obtained from children under 5 years of age, were analyzed. Seventy-five (52.8%) patients were male, and the age ranged from 1 to 60 months (mean age = 19±15.4 months; median = 15 months). The most common diagnoses were pneumonia [92 cases (64.8%)] and meningitis [33 cases (23.2%)]. The strains were mostly isolated from blood [61 samples (43%)], pleural fluid [52 samples (36.6%)], and cerebrospinal fluid [28 samples (19.7%)]. The most common serotypes were 14, 5, 6B, 1, 6A, 18C, 19A, 3, 9V, 19F, 23F, 9N, and 10A. There were 14 [9.9%] penicillin-resistant strains, which was detected only in the following serotypes: 14, 6B, 19F, 19A, and 23F, being predominant from 2004 to 2008 (p = 0.000). There was reduced susceptibility to co-trimoxazole (79.5%), erythromycin and clindamycin (11.3% each), and ceftriaxone (5.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Penicillin resistance was detected in 9.9% of the strains, being predominant from 2004 to 2008. Twenty different pneumococcal serotypes were identified, and 71.9% of the serotypes were represented in the 7-valent conjugate vaccine (PN CRM7) currently available.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar impacto dos novos pontos de corte de sensibilidade à penicilina nas taxas de resistência de cepas de pneumococo obtidas de crianças com pneumonia. MÉTODOS: Cepas de pneumococo isoladas no laboratório de análises clínicas do Hospital de Clínicas de Uberlândia, Uberlândia (MG), a partir de amostras de pacientes internados foram enviadas ao Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Sao Paulo (SP), para confirmação da identificação, sorotipagem e determinação da sensibilidade aos antimicrobianos. RESULTADOS: De abril de 1999 a dezembro de 2008 foram enviadas ao Instituto Adolfo Lutz 330 cepas de pneumococo, sendo 195 (59%) provenientes de pacientes com diagnóstico de pneumonia. Destas, foram analisadas 100 cepas de pacientes com idade ≤ 12 anos; a idade dos pacientes variou de 1 a 12,6 anos, com média de 2,4 e mediana de 1,7 anos; 47 pacientes eram do sexo masculino; as fontes de recuperação foram sangue (42%) e líquido pleural (58%). Foram detectadas 35 cepas oxacilina-resistentes: segundo os critérios do Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) de 2007 [concentração inibitória mínima (CIM) ≤ 0,06 µg/mL para sensibilidade (S), 0,12 a 1 µg/mL para resistência intermediária (RI) e ≥ 2 µg/mL para resistência plena (RP)], 22 cepas apresentaram RI e 11, RP para penicilina. De acordo com os critérios atuais do CLSI de 2008 (≤ 2 µg/mL para S, 4 µg/mL para RI e ≥ 8 µg/mL para RP) apenas uma cepa confirmou RI à penicilina. Detectou-se resistência a cotrimoxazol (80%), tetraciclina (21%), eritromicina (13%), clindamicina (13%) e ceftriaxona (uma cepa, simultaneamente resistente a penicilina). CONCLUSÕES: Com a aplicação dos novos pontos de corte para sensibilidade in vitro, as taxas de resistência a penicilina caíram 97%, de 33 para 1%.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of new penicillin susceptibility breakpoints on resistance rates of pneumococcal strains collected from children with pneumonia. METHODS: Pneumococcal strains collected from patients admitted with pneumonia were isolated at the clinical analysis lab of Hospital de Clínicas de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil, and sent to Instituto Adolfo Lutz, São Paulo, Brazil, for further identification, serotyping and determination of antimicrobial susceptibility. RESULTS: From April 1999 to December 2008, 330 strains of pneumococcus were sent to Instituto Adolfo Lutz; of these, 195 (59%) were collected from patients with pneumonia. One hundred strains collected from patients ≤ 12 years old were analyzed. The patients' age ranged from 1 to 12.6 years old (with mean age of 2.4 and median of 1.7 years). Forty-seven patients were male. The strains were isolated from blood (42%) and pleural fluid (58%). There were 35 oxacillin-resistant strains: according to the criteria defined by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) in 2007 [minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ≤ 0.06 µg/mL for susceptibility (S), 0.12 to 1 µg/mL for intermediate resistance (IR), and ≥ 2 µg/mL for full resistance (FR)], 22 strains had IR and 11 strains had FR. According to the current breakpoints defined by the CLSI in 2008 (≤ 2 µg/mL for S, 4 µg/mL for IR and ≥ 8 µg/mL for FR), only one strain had IR to penicillin. There was resistance to co-trimoxazole (80%), tetracycline (21%), erythromycin (13%), clindamycin (13%), and ceftriaxone (one strain simultaneously resistant to penicillin). CONCLUSIONS: When the new breakpoints for in vitro susceptibility were applied, penicillin resistance rates dropped 97%, from 33 to 1%.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the development of resistance to erythromycin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ), and vancomycin of the invasive isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae obtained from children in 10 Latin American/Caribbean countries during six years of surveillance. METHODS: Analysis of 8 993 isolates of S. pneumoniae recovered in 2000-2005 from children with invasive infections, who were less than 6 years of age, and from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Mexico, Paraguay, Uruguay, or Venezuela. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined through the methods established and standardized by the SIREVA project. Multidrug resistance was defined as: resistance to three or more antibiotics of the same class; to the non-beta-lactams analyzed by this study; or, to the beta-lactams evaluated by a previous study, in which 37.8% of these isolates showed decreased susceptibility to penicillin. RESULTS:Some degree of resistance was found to TMP-SMZ and erythromycin (56.4% and 15.4% of the isolates studied, respectively), with 4.6% highly resistant to chloramphenicol. All isolates were susceptible to vancomycin. The highest prevalence of TMP-SMZ resistance was observed in the pneumonia isolates; and that of erythromycin, in cases of sepsis (61.6% and 25.5%, respectively; P < 0.01). The high-est prevalence of TMP-SMZ resistance was found in Brazil (71.9%), and that of erythromycin, in Mexico (38.2%) and Venezuela (32.9%). The 14, 6B, 19F, and 23F serotypes were most often associated with resistance to the antibiotics in the study. CONCLUSIONS: High and increasing rates of isolates resistant to TMP-SMZ and erythromycin were observed, as well as a decreasing percentage of isolates resistant to chloramphenicol. These trends highlight differences among the countries studied.

OBJETIVO:Determinar la evolución de la resistencia a la eritromicina, el cloranfenicol, el trimetoprim-sulfametozaxol (SXT) y la vancomicina de aislamientos invasores de Streptococcus pneumoniae obtenidos de niños de 10 países de América Latina y del Caribe en seis años de vigilancia. MÉTODOS: Se analizaron 8 993 aislamientos de S. pneumoniae recuperados entre 2000 y 2005 de niños menores de 6 años con infecciones invasoras, procedentes de Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, México, Paraguay, República Dominicana, Uruguay y Venezuela. La sensibilidad a los antibióticos se determinó mediante los métodos establecidos y estandarizados en el proyecto SIREVA. La resistencia a múltiples antibióticos se definió como la resistencia a tres o más familias de antibióticos, de los no betalactámicos analizados en este estudio o de los betalactámicos evaluados en un estudio previo en el que 37,8% de estos aislamientos presentaron sensibilidad disminuida a la penicilina. RESULTADOS: Se encontró algún grado de resistencia al SXT y la eritromicina (56,4% y 15,4% de los aislamientos estudiados, respectivamente) y 4,6% presentó alta resistencia al cloranfenicol. Todos los aislamientos fueron sensibles a la vancomicina. Se observó la mayor frecuencia de resistencia al SXT en los aislamientos de neumonía y a la eritromicina en los casos de sepsis (61,6% y 25,5%, respectivamente; P < 0,01). La mayor frecuencia de resistencia al SXT se observó en Brasil (71,9%) y a la eritromicina en México (38,2%) y Venezuela (32,9%). Los serotipos 14, 6B, 19F y 23F fueron los que más frecuentemente se asociaron con la resistencia a los antibióticos estudiados. CONCLUSIONES: Se observó una elevada y creciente frecuencia de aislamientos resistentes al SXT y la eritromicina, y una disminución en la proporción de aislamientos resistentes al cloranfenicol. Estas tendencias mostraron diferencias entre los países estudiados.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar as taxas de resistência de Streptococcus pneumoniae, isolados de pacientes com meningite, à penicilina G, ceftriaxona e vancomicina; avaliar possíveis fatores de risco para resistência antimicrobiana; descrever os sorotipos encontrados e sugerir a terapêutica empírica inicial para meningite. Foram isoladas 100 amostras de S. pneumoniae, encontrando-se 15% de resistência à penicilina, 1% à cefalosporina e 0% à vancomicina. Os sorotipos mais encontrados foram 14 (19%), 3 e 23F (10% cada). Analisando-se os resistentes, o sorotipo 14 (44%) também foi o mais freqüente. Os fatores de risco para resistência de S. pneumoniae encontrados foram: idade menor que um ano (p=0,01) e o uso prévio de antibiótico (p=0,046). As taxas de resistência encontradas, moderada a penicilina, baixa para cefalosporina e nula para vancomicina, sugerem como terapêutica empírica inicial para tratamento da meningite bacteriana aguda de origem comunitária, a cefalosporina de terceira geração isoladamente.

The main objectives of this study are to evaluate the resistance rates of Streptococcus pneumonia to penicillin G, ceftriaxone and vancomycin in patients with meningitis; to analyze possible risk factors to the antimicrobian resistance; to describe the serotypes detected and to suggest an initial empirical treatment for meningitis. The sensitiveness and serotypes of all isolated S. pneumoniae of patients with acute bacterial meningitis received by the Paraná State Central Laboratory from April 2001 to august 2002 have been evaluated. One hundred S. pneumoniae have been isolated, of which 15% were resistant to penicillin, 1% to cephalosporin and 0% to vancomycin. The serotypes most found were 14 (19%), 3 and 23F (10% each). When only the resistant serotypes were analyzed, the most prevalent was the 14 with 44%. The risk factors found in relation to the S. pneumoniae resistance were: age under one year old (p=0.01) and previous use of antibiotic (p=0.046). The resistance rates found, which were moderate to penicillin, low to cephalosporin and neutral to vancomycin, suggest the isolated use of a 3rd generation cephalosporin as an initial empirical therapy for the treatment of acute bacterial meningitis with a communitarian background.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze the phenotypical characteristics and the susceptibility to antibiotics of the circulating strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitidis circulating in Latin America and the Caribbean from 2000-2005. Potential coverage by conjugate vaccines was evaluated. METHODS: Conventional methods were used to study the distribution of the serotypes or serogroups of 17 303 strains of S. pneumoniae, 2 782 strains of H. influenzae, and 6 955 strains of N. meningitidis isolated from cases of pneumonia, meningitis, sepsis, bacteriemias, and other invasive processes. The antimicrobial susceptibilities of the study strains were evaluated. The isolates came from 453 sentinel surveillance sites in 19 countries in Latin America and four in the Caribbean, as part of the SIREVA II (Network Surveillance System for the Bacterial Agents Responsible for Pneumonia and Meningitis) project. RESULTS: S. pneumoniae serotype 14 was the most frequently isolated (21.1%), especially in children under 6 years of age (29.1%). The potential coverages by hepta-, nona-, deca-, and trideca-valent antipneumonia conjugate vaccines were 59.0%, 73.4%, 76.5%, and 85.9%, respectively. Of the isolates, 63.3% were sensitive to penicillin. H. influenzae serotype b was present in 72.2% of the isolations from children under 2 years of age, whereas 8.6% produced serotypes a, c, d, e, and f, and 19.2% could not be serotyped. The rate of H. influenzae beta-lactamase-producing strains isolated from children under 2 years of age was 16.3%. The most frequent N. meningitidis serogroups were B (69.0%) and C (25.7%); 65.8% and 99.2% of the strains were susceptible to penicillin and rifampicin, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the importance of comprehensive epidemiological surveillance of S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae and N. meningitidis in Latin America and the Caribbean. The great heterogeneity found in the distribution of S. pneumoniae serotypes among the countries studied could reduce immunization coverage. Conducting a specific analysis of each country to adjust the introduction of new conjugate vaccines and determine the best immunization plan is recommended.

OBJETIVOS: Analizar las características fenotípicas y la susceptibilidad a antibióticos de las cepas circulantes de Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae y Neisseria meningitidis en América Latina y el Caribe entre 2000 y 2005. Se evaluó la cobertura potencial de las vacunas conjugadas. MÉTODOS: Se estudió por métodos convencionales la distribución de los serotipos o serogrupos de 17 303 cepas de S. pneumoniae, 2 782 cepas de H. influenzae y 6 955 cepas de N. meningitidis aisladas de casos de neumonía, meningitis, sepsis, bacteriemias y otros procesos invasivos. Se evaluó la susceptibilidad a los antibióticos de las cepas estudiadas. Los aislamientos procedían de 453 centros centinelas de 19 países de América Latina y 4 del Caribe, como parte del proyecto SIREVA II. RESULTADOS: El serotipo 14 de S. pneumoniae fue el más frecuentemente aislado (21,1%), especialmente en niños menores de 6 años (29,1%). Las coberturas potenciales de las vacunas conjugadas antineumocócicas hepta, nona, deca y tridecavalentes fueron de 59,0%, 73,4%, 76,5% y 85,9%, respectivamente. De los aislamientos, 63,3% eran sensibles a la penicilina. El serotipo b de H. influenzae estuvo presente en 72,2% de los aislamientos en niños menores de 2 años, mientras 8,6% correspondieron a los serotipos a, c, d, e y f; 19,2% resultaron no serotipables. La proporción de cepas de H. influenzae productoras de betalactamasa en aislamientos en niños menores de 2 años fue de 16,3%. Los serogrupos de N. meningitidis más frecuentes fueron el B (69,0%) y el C (25,7%); 65,8% y 99,2% de las cepas fueron sensibles a la penicilina y a la rifampicina, respectivamente. CONCLUSIONES: Estos resultados resaltan la importancia de la vigilancia epidemiológica integral de S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae y N. meningitidis en América Latina y el Caribe. La gran heterogeneidad en la distribución de los serotipos de S. pneumoniae en los países estudiados podría reducir la cobertura de las vacunas aplicadas. Se recomienda realizar un análisis específico por país para ajustar la introducción de nuevas vacunas conjugadas y decidir el esquema de vacunación más adecuado.

No Brasil, enterococos resistente à vancomicina (VRE) têm sido descritos como patógenos hospitalares, desde 1998. Durante um monitoramento de VRE em um hospital, foram detectadas duas cepas de Enterococcus faecalis com genótipo vanA, e sensibilidade à teicoplanina. Este é o primeiro relato do isolamento de enterococo fenótipo VanB e genótipo vanA de amostra clínica no Brasil.

In Brazil, vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) have been reported as nosocomial pathogens since 1998. Recently, in a VRE surveillance in a hospital, we detected two Enterococcus faecalis isolates with vanA genotype and susceptible to teicoplanin. This is the first report of VanB phenotype-vanA genotype enterococci isolated from humans in Brazil.

OBJETIVOS: Determinar a prevalência de colonização nasofaríngea pelo pneumococo em crianças com doença falciforme, em uso de profilaxia com penicilina; identificar fatores de risco para colonização; sorotipar as cepas isoladas e avaliar a resistência antimicrobiana. METODOLOGIA: Foram colhidos 188 suabes de nasofaringe de 98 crianças com doença falciforme em acompanhamento no Hospital São Paulo, da Universidade Federal de São Paulo, no período de 09 de abril de 2002 a 28 de fevereiro de 2003. O isolamento e a identificação dos pneumococos seguiram procedimentos padronizados. A concentração inibitória mínima para penicilina foi determinada pelo método do E-test. A sorotipagem foi realizada pela reação de Neufeld-Quellung com anti-soros para 46 sorotipos. RESULTADOS: A idade variou de 4 meses a 17 anos (média e desvio padrão de 6,8±4,7 anos). Das 98 crianças do estudo, 13 apresentaram colonização pelo pneumococo (prevalência de 13,3%). O maior risco de colonização ocorreu em menores de 2 anos de idade (p = 0,02). A prevalência de cepas com resistência intermediária à penicilina foi de 21,4%, não sendo evidenciada resistência plena. Também não houve cepas resistentes à eritromicina, ceftriaxona e vancomicina. Os sorotipos isolados mais freqüentes foram o 18C e o 23F. CONCLUSÕES: O uso profilático de penicilina diminuiu a colonização nasofaríngea pelo pneumococo e não determinou aumento da resistência a esse antimicrobiano nas crianças com doença falciforme. A penicilina ainda pode ser usada na profilaxia e no tratamento dos episódios febris dessas crianças.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of nasopharyngeal pneumococcus colonization in children with sickle cell disease undergoing penicillin prophylaxis, to identify risk factors for colonization and to serotype and determine antibiotic resistance in pneumococci obtained from those children. METHODS: Between April 9, 2002 and February 28, 2003, 188 nasopharyngeal swabs were obtained from 98 children with sickle cell disease in follow-up at the Hospital São Paulo - Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Pneumococci were isolated and identified by standard methods. The minimal inhibitory concentration for penicillin was determined by the E-test method. Isolates were serotyped with the use of type-specific antisera for 46 different serotypes (Neufeld-Quellung reaction). RESULTS: The age of children ranged from 4 months to 17 years (median and standard deviation 6.8±4.7 years). Thirteen of the 98 children had nasopharyngeal pneumococcus colonization (13.3% prevalence). There was a significantly greater risk of colonization among children less than 2 years old (p = 0.02). Twenty-one percent of isolates had intermediate penicillin resistance. There were no isolates highly resistant to penicillin. All isolates were susceptible to erythromycin, ceftriaxone, or vancomycin. The most frequently identified serotypes were 18C and 23F. CONCLUSIONS: Penicillin prophylaxis reduced pneumococcal nasopharyngeal colonization and did not increase the prevalence of penicillin-resistant pneumococci in children with sickle cell disease. Penicillin can be used not only for prophylaxis, but also in the acute management of febrile states with these children.

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o perfil de sorotipos e a susceptibilidade aos antimicrobianos de cepas de Streptococcus pneumoniae obtidas em espécimes clínicos de pacientes com doença invasiva, bem como suas implicações na formulação de vacinas pneumocócicas. MÉTODOS: Cepas de pneumococo isoladas no Laboratório de Análises Clínicas do Hospital de Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia a partir de amostras clínicas de pacientes com doença invasiva foram identificadas e enviadas ao Instituto Adolfo Lutz em São Paulo para confirmação da identificação, sorotipagem e determinação da susceptibilidade aos antimicrobianos. RESULTADOS: De abril de 1999 a março de 2003, foram isoladas 148 cepas invasivas de pneumococo, sendo 84 (56,7%) provenientes de pacientes do sexo masculino. A idade variou de um dia a 88,83 anos, com média de 21,33+25,82 anos e mediana de 4,42 anos. Os diagnósticos clínicos mais comuns foram pneumonia (91 casos; 61,4%), meningite (32 casos; 21,6%) e bacteremia sem foco evidente (15 casos; 10,1%). As principais fontes de recuperação foram sangue (76 amostras; 51,3%), líquido pleural (39; 26,3%) e liquor (30; 20,2%). No total, foram identificados 23 diferentes sorotipos entre 143 amostras testadas, sendo os mais comuns os seguintes: 14, 3, 1, 5, 6A, 6B e 18C. Dentre 30 (20,2%) cepas oxacilina-resistentes, 23 (15,5%) confirmaram a resistência à penicilina (12,8% com nível intermediário e 2,7%, com nível pleno), que esteve restrita aos sorotipos 14, 23F, 19A e 6B, predominando em indivíduos com até dois anos de idade (p = 0,0008). Foi detectada susceptibilidade diminuída ao cotrimoxazol (63,4%), à eritromicina (8,3%), à clindamicina (8,7%) e à ofloxacina (0,8%). A resistência à cefotaxima foi detectada em três das 30 cepas testadas (2% das 148), todas elas com resistência confirmada à penicilina. Não foi observada resistência a cloranfenicol, rifampicina ou vancomicina. CONCLUSÕES: A resistência à penicilina foi detectada em 15,5% das cepas e predominou em crianças abaixo de dois anos de idade. Foram identificados 23 diferentes sorotipos de Streptococcus pneumoniae em pacientes internados com doença invasiva, e a maioria dos sorotipos (82,6%) e das cepas (90,2%) está incluída na vacina polissacarídica 23-valente. As cifras para a vacina 7-valente, atualmente disponível (PN CRM7), são de 46,7% dos sorotipos e 63,6% das cepas, obtidos de crianças com até cinco anos de idade.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of serotypes and antimicrobial susceptibility of invasive strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae and to discuss the implications of these findings for vaccine formulation. METHODS: Strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae obtained from normally sterile fluids from patients admitted with invasive diseases were isolated and identified at the Hospital de Clínicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, state of Minas Gerais, and forwarded to Instituto Adolfo Lutz, state of São Paulo, for further identification, serotyping and determination of antimicrobial susceptibility. RESULTS: From April 1999 to March 2003, 148 invasive strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae were obtained. The age of patients ranged from 1 day to 88.83 years (mean: 21.33+25.82 years; median: 4.42 years). Eighty-four (56.7%) patients were male. The most common diagnoses were pneumonia (91 cases; 61.4%), meningitis (32 cases; 21.6%) and occult bacteremia (15 cases; 10.1%). Strains were isolated mostly from blood (76 occasions; 51.3%), pleural fluid (39 occasions; 26.3%) and cerebrospinal fluid (30 occasions; 20.2%). There were 23 different serotypes, and the most common were 14, 3, 1, 5, 6A, 6B and 18C. Among 30 (20.2%) oxacillin-resistant strains, 23 (15.5%) were confirmed as resistant to penicillin (12.8% intermediate resistance and 2.7% full resistance). Oxacillin-resistant strains were restricted to serotypes 14, 23F, 19A and 6B. Resistance to penicillin varied with age, being more common in children under two years of age (p=0.0008). We observed decreased sensibility to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (92 isolates; 63.4%), to erythromycin (12 isolates; 8.3%), to clindamycin (12 isolates ;8.7%), to ofloxacin (one strain; 0.8%) and to cefotaxime (three strains; 2%; also resistant to penicillin). All isolates were susceptible to chloramphenicol, rifampin and vancomycin. CONCLUSIONS: The decreased susceptibility to penicillin, detected in 15.5% of the strains was predominant in children under two years of age. There were 23 different Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes. The 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine covers 82.6% of the serotypes and 90.2% of the invasive strains isolated in this population. In addition, 46.7% of the serotypes and 63.6% of the strains isolated from children until five years of age are covered in the currently available 7-valent conjugated vaccine (PN CRM7).

Objetivo: avaliar letalidade, morbidade, resistência bacteriana e sorotipos mais freqüentes em crianças internadas por meningite bacteriana.Métodos: selecionamos crianças com meningite bacteriana com cultura positiva para S. pneumoniae, entre 1 mês e 15 anos, internadas em dois hospitais em São Paulo, e analisamos dados clínicos e microbiológicos. A identificação do S. pneumoniae foi realizada através do teste de optoquina e solubilidade em bile. Todas as cepas foram testadas com disco de oxacilina 1 µg e, nas cepas que apresentaram alo de inibição <20 mm, foi avaliada a concentração inibitória mínima para penicilina, cloranfenicol, eritromicina, ceftriaxona, vancomicina e trimetoprim/sulfametoxazole pelo método do E-teste. As cepas de pneumococo foram sorotipadas através da reação de Quellung. A evolução clínica dos pacientes foi analisada através de revisão retrospectiva dos prontuários, com uso de um protocolo uniforme de avaliação.Resultados: incluímos 55 pacientes com meningite pneumocócica, sendo que 52,5% delas apresentava idade menor de 6 meses. Das cepas isoladas, 36% apresentava infecção por cepa com resistência intermediaria à penicilina (0,1µg/ ml < CIM < 1,0 µg/ ml). Das cepas com susceptibilidade diminuída à penicilina, 35% era resistente à trimetoprim/sulfametoxazole. Não houve resistência aos outros antibióticos testados. A letalidade foi de 20%, e houve seqüelas neurológicas em 40% das crianças avaliadas. Em relação à perda auditiva, a mesma ocorreu em 60% das crianças avaliadas. Houve correlação estatisticamente significante entre letalidade e alteração neurológica com idade abaixo de 6 meses. Os sorotipos do pneumococo mais freqüentemente encontrados foram 1, 5, 6B, 14, 19A e 23F, sendo que 70% dos sorotipos encontrados estão presentes na vacina heptavalente, recentemente liberada.Conclusão: meningite pneumocócica apresenta alta letalidade e alta morbidade, e a vacina heptavalente tem utilidade potencial na sua prevenção.

Objective: to determine mortality, morbidity, antimicrobial susceptibility and the most frequent serotypes in children admitted to hospital due to pneumococcal meningitis Methods: patients with meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae detected by culture in cerebrospinal fluid or blood, aged between 1 month and 15 years old, admitted to two hospitals in the city of São Paulo, were included in the study. Susceptibility to penicillin was determined by the disk diffusion test using oxacillin 1 µg disk. If the inhibition area with oxacillin disk was less than 20mm, the strains were tested for penicillin, chloramphenicol, ceftriaxone, vancomycin and sulfamethoxazole /trimethoprim using the E test.Results: we identified 55 patients, 52.5% of which were younger than 6 months. The prevalence of penicillin-nonsusceptible strains was 36%. All the strains were intermediately resistant (0.1mg/ ml <FONT FACE=Symbol>£</FONT> MIC<FONT FACE=Symbol>£</FONT> 1.0 mg/ ml) and 35% of the penicillin intermediate resistant strains were resistant to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. The mortality rate was 20% and impaired neurological outcome was present in 40% of the children. The audiometric test revealed alteration in 60% of the children tested. Age less than 6 months was associated with poor outcome. The most frequent serotypes were 1, 5, 6B, 14, 19A and 23F, and 70% of the serotypes were included in the new 7-valent vaccine.Conclusions: these findings suggest that pneumococcal meningitis presents high mortality and morbidity and that the 7-valent conjugate vaccine would be potentially useful in preventing serious pneumococcal infections.

OBJETIVO: avaliar a prevalência e os fatores de risco para a colonização nasofaríngea e determinar o padrão de suscetibilidade à penicilina de cepas isoladas da nasofaringe de crianças com rinofaringite aguda. METODOLOGIA: No período de 16/6/97 a 20/5/98 foram coletados 400 Swabs da nasofaringe de crianças com idade entre três meses e cinco anos que apresentavam quadro clínico de rinofaringite aguda. A identificação do S. pneumoniae foi realizada através do teste de optoquina e solubilidade em bile. Todas as cepas foram triadas através do disco de oxacilina 1mg, sendo avaliada, posteriormente, a concentração inibitória mínima para penicilina pelo método do E-teste. RESULTADOS: A prevalência da colonização nasofaríngea pelo S. pneumoniae foi de 35%. A análise dos fatores de risco associados à colonização nasofaríngea indicou que as crianças que eram institucionalizadas e que tinham irmãos menores de cinco anos apresentaram uma taxa maior de colonização. A prevalência de cepas não suscetíveis à penicilina foi de 16%. Todas as cepas apresentaram resistência intermediária (0,1mcg/ ml £ CIM £ 1,0 mcg/ ml ). Das 19 cepas com resistência à penicilina, 7 tinham resistência intermediária (37%), e duas (11%) resistência elevada ao cotrimoxazol. Não foi observada resistência à ceftriaxona, amoxicilina, claritromicina ou cloranfenicol. CONCLUSÕES: Concluímos que a prevalência da colonização nasofaríngea pelo pneumococo, em crianças menores de cinco anos com quadro de rinofaringite aguda, foi de 34,8%; as que eram institucionalizadas e tinham irmãos menores apresentaram uma maior taxa de colonização. A resistência à penicilina ocorreu em 15,6% dos isolados, não sendo detectada nenhuma cepa com resistência elevada. A taxa de resistência bacteriana encontrada foi bastante próxima à encontrada em estudo de infecções invasivas. Este fato sugere que os isolados de pneumococo da nasofaringe de crianças com infecção respiratória alta podem ser usados na vigilância da resistência antimicrobiana numa determinada comunidade.

OBJECTIVE: to determine the prevalence and risk factors for nasopharyngeal colonization by, and to evaluate antimicrobial susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae strains in children with acute rhinopharyngitis. METHODS: we collected nasopharyngeal swab specimens from 400 children aged 3 months to 5 years and with clinical status of acute rhinopharyngitis from June 16, 1997 to May 20, 1998 at the outpatient clinics of two hospitals in the city of São Paulo. Nasopharyngeal specimens were collected pernasally using a calcium alginate swab and plated immediately after collection onto trypticose soy agar with 5% sheep blood and garamicin 5 mcg/ml. Penicillin susceptibility was determined by oxacillin 1 mcg disk screening test and the minimal inhibitory concentration by the E-test. RESULTS: Pneumococci were recovered from 139 children, indicating a colonization prevalence of 35%. The risk factors analyzed indicated that the colonization was more prevalent in children attending day-care centers, children with siblings younger than 5 years, and children with recent use of antimicrobial agents. The prevalence of penicillin non-susceptible strains was of 16 % (20 strains). All strains were intermediately resistant (0.1mcg/ ml < MIC < 1.0 mcg/ ml). Out of the penicillin intermediately resistant strains, 7 (37%) showed intermediate resistance to cotrimoxazol and 2 (11%) full resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. No strains were resistant to ceftriaxone, amoxicillin, clarithromicin, or chloramphenicol. CONCLUSIONS: our findings indicate that the prevalence of nasopharyngeal colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae in children with upper respiratory infections was of 34.8%. Children attending day-care centers and children with younger siblings showed higher levels of colonization The results of prevalence of bacterial resistance were similar to those of studies regarding invasive infections, thus indicating that nasopharyngeal isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae can be used in the surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in a defined geographical area.