Abstract: In family justice, one of the biggest challenges is to effectively guarantee the right of children to participate. Though participation implies multiple benefits for the child, such as increased self-esteem, psychological wellbeing and preventing violations of rights, it is possible to detect many obstacles for it to effectively occur in court. Among these, prioritizing adults’ interests, conditioning participation of the child to their age and lack of formal regulations was noted. The present study consists of a thematic analysis of interviews with Chilean family judges about child participation. Findings point to a consideration of the infrastructure and the institutional legal organization as not being able to guarantee and facilitate child participation in the judicial system. Lack of standardization in norms and practices inside the courts encourages judges to base their decisions on their own personal abilities and criteria, frequently influenced by prejudice about revictimization and the capacity of children to exercise a meaningful participation related to their psychological development. In addition, considerations about how laws and family courts should promote child participation in family justice are discussed.

Resumen: En la justicia de familia, uno de los mayores desafíos es hacer efectivo el derecho de los niños a la participación. Aunque la participación infantil entraña múltiples beneficios, como mayor autoestima, bienestar psicológico y prevención de posibles vulneraciones de derechos en los niños, se observan varias dificultades para que esta se haga efectiva en el contexto del tribunal. Estas incluyen priorizar los intereses del adulto, condicionar la participación del niño a su edad, y la falta de capacitación y regulación. El presente estudio realizó un análisis temático en base a entrevistas con jueces de familia chilenos sobre la participación infantil. Los hallazgos apuntan a una visión acerca de la infraestructura y de la organización institucional judicial que no garantiza ni facilita la participación infantil. La falta de estandarización y capacitación favorece que cada juez haga uso de habilidades y criterios personales para aplicarla o no, donde se observa que frecuentemente influyen ideas preconcebidas sobre la victimización secundaria y la capacidad de ejercer una participación significativa en relación con el nivel de desarrollo de los niños. Asimismo, se discuten las consideraciones que la ley y la institución legal deben tener en orden de garantizar la participación de niños, niñas y adolescentes en causas judiciales de familia.

Abstract This article analyzes citizenship education from the viewpoint of those professionals in charge of its implementation in schools in the north of Chile; that is, of history and geography teachers, and teachers in charge of Citizenship Education Plans in their respective schools. On the other hand, the study includes the perspective of Universidad de Tarapacá´s academics, who prepare teachers in charge of implementing citizenship education. Based on the analysis of information collected by teacher and academic questionnaires, this article points out that most teachers indicate a lack of specialized training in citizenship education. Moreover, most academics do not produce research on this topic. This implies varying ways of understanding citizenship education, which, in practice, impacts the way in which citizenship education is taught in schools. This article concludes by providing a series of recommendations for improving initial teacher training, with the aim of advancing citizenship education in schools, according to the guidelines of the Ministry of Education of Chile.

Resumen Este artículo analiza la formación ciudadana desde el punto de vista de quienes tienen a cargo su implementación en las escuelas del norte de Chile; es decir, profesores/as de historia y geografía y docentes a cargo de los Planes de Formación Ciudadana en sus respectivas escue las. Por otra parte, se incorpora también la visión de académicos/as de la Universidad de Tarapacá, quienes forman a los/as docentes a car go de implementar la enseñanza de la ciudadanía. A partir del análisis de información obtenida en base a la administración de cuestionarios a docentes y académicos/as, se advierte que la mayoría de los/as docentes señalan no haber recibido una formación especializada en ciudadanía. A su vez, la mayoría de los/as académicos no produce investigación en esta área. Esto implica maneras disímiles de entender la ciudadanía, lo que, en la práctica, repercute en cómo se imparte la formación ciudadana en las escuelas. El artículo concluye entregando recomendaciones para mejorar la formación inicial docente en materia de ciudadanía, mejorando así la enseñanza de la ciudadanía en las escuelas, de acuerdo al Plan de Formación Ciudadana promovido por el Ministerio de Educación de Chile.

ABSTRACT This article presents and analyzes the potential contribution of the new Law of Contributions to Public Space, to the financing and implementation of public spaces. This article simulates the contribution of private intensive residential densification operations in 15 neighborhoods of the Metropolitan Area of Santiago. The Law constitutes a framework for moving towards balanced urban development through payments for impacts proportional to density. However, the results show that the contribution percentage is insufficient to implement the communal and inter-communal investment plans. In turn, their final contribution in land or money transfer responds to location or lot characteristics because tax assessment and the lot area have greater impact than the density of the residential building, on the contribution to public space. It is shown that when calculating the contributions with the occupation density, distortions occur with respect to the density planned by local zoning instruments.

RESUMEN Este artículo expone y analiza la potencial contribución que en Chile hace la nueva Ley de Aportes al financiamiento e implementación de espacios públicos. El trabajo simula el porcentaje de aporte de operaciones privadas de densificación residencial intensiva en quince barrios del Área Metropolitana de Santiago. La mencionada ley constituye un marco para avanzar hacia un desarrollo urbano equilibrado mediante pagos por impactos proporcionales a la densidad. Sin embargo, los resultados demuestran que el porcentaje de aporte es insuficiente para concretar los planes comunales e intercomunales de inversiones. A su vez, su contribución final en cesión de suelo o en dinero responde a variables de localización o superficie predial, porque el avalúo fiscal y la superficie predial tienen mayor incidencia en el aporte que la densidad del edificio residencial. Se demuestra que, al calcular los aportes con la densidad de ocupación, se producen distorsiones respecto de la densidad planificada por los instrumentos de planificación territorial.

Perfectionism has been investigated related to the consequences to mental health it might entail for gifted students and their socioemotional development. However, findings have been inconclusive. This exploratory study aims to discover the main characteristics of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism in gifted Chilean secondary students. For this purpose, extreme cases were found using Frost´s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale to subsequently conduct semi-structured interviews with a sample of four students. Results pointed to parental and societal expectations as the main aspects involved in the development of perfectionism, which sheds light on how to support the manifestation of perfectionism both in educational and clinical realms.

El perfeccionismo ha sido investigado en torno a las consecuencias que este podría significar para la salud mental de alumnos talentosos y su desarrollo socioemocional. Sin embargo, los hallazgos han sido poco concluyentes. Este estudio exploratorio apunta a descubrir las principales características del perfeccionismo adaptativo y desadaptativo en estudiantes chilenos académicamente talentosos de educación media. Para ello se detectaron casos extremos con la aplicación de la Escala Multidimensional de Perfeccionismo de Frost, para luego realizar entrevistas en profundidad semiestructuradas en una muestra de cuatro casos. Los resultados apuntan a las expectativas parentales y sociales como los principales aspectos involucrados en el desarrollo del perfeccionismo, entregando así luces de cómo apoyar la manifestación del perfeccionismo en el ámbito educativo y clínico.

Apesar dos estudos sobre a cognição dos alunos com Altas Habilidades ser abrangente, investigar as questões sócioemocionais desse grupo se faz necessário. Uma das vertentes que vem sendo estudada é o perfeccionismo, pois apresenta significado para saúde mental e desenvolvimento desse grupo de pessoas. Contudo, as descobertas ainda são pouco conclusivas. Este estudo exploratório visa descobrir as principais características do perfeccionismo adaptativo e mal adaptativo em estudantes chilenos academicamente talentosos do Ensino Médio - 1º a 3º / Ensino Fundamental - 5º-9º através da Escala Multidimensional de Frost. Para isso, detectou-se casos extremos com a aplicação desse modelo e na sequência do trabalho foram realizadas entrevistas com profundidade em uma amostra de quatro casos. Os resultados apontam para as expectativas sociais e familiares como os principais aspectos envolvidos no desenvolvimento do perfeccionismo, tanto no âmbito educativo quanto no clínico.

Algunos estudios han reportado que los ratones hembras son más resistentes al Trypanosoma cruzi que los machos. Para probar lo anterior, se realizo un estudio comparativo con cuatro cepas de T. cruzi de Costa Rica midiendo parámetros como niveles de parasitemia, porcentajes de mortalidad e histopatología, en un total de 240 ratones (160 para parasitemia y mortalidad y 80 para histopatología). Todas las cepas correspondieron al genotipo TcI. En todos los casos los ratones machos resultaron más susceptibles a la infección (P<0,001). Se observaron parasitemias hasta cinco veces más altas en los machos que, en general, mueren antes que las hembras. La cepa Oswaldo fue la que presentó una mayor mortalidad y niveles de parasitemia más altos. El tejido cardiaco fue el más afectado tanto en los ratones machos como en las hembras, con las cepas Bolita y Capitán el número de nidos en el miocardio fue significativamente mayor en los machos que en las hembras. Una vez concluido el análisis comparativo se eligió la cepa humana GA, para determinar su efecto en ratones machos y hembras castrados, al lado de ratones normales (150 ratones en total). Las hembras normales se mostraron como las más resistentes, con parasitemias menores que las castradas (P<0,001), y los machos normales como los más susceptibles, con parasitemias significativamente más altas (P<0,001) y supervivencias menores (P<0.01), que los ratones castrados. No se observó diferencia significativa en cuanto al número de nidos en los tejidos entre ratones normales y castrados. Se concluye que el sexo tiene influencia en la resistencia a la infección experimental por T. cruzi.

Some authors have reported that female mice are more resistant to Trypanosoma cruzi infections than male mice. In order to test this hypothesis we did a comparative study using four isolates of T. cruzi from Costa Rica in a total of 160 mice, and observed several parameters such as: parasitemia levels, percent mortality and histopathology. All isolates were identified as genotype TcI. Male mice were more susceptible to infection (P<0.001). Parasitemias reached levels up to five times higher in males and shorter survival periods were observed in males than in females. The Oswaldo isolate showed the highest parasitemias and mortality rates. The heart tissue was the most affected in both males and females. In two isolates the number of parasites in the heart was significantly higher in males than in females. In separate experiments, the human GA isolate was selected in order to observe its effect in castrated male and female mice. Non-castrated females were the most resistant, with lower parasitemias than castrated females, and non-castrated males were the most susceptible with higher parasitemias (P<0.001) and lower survival periods than castrated males (P<0.01). There was no significant difference in the number of parasites in tissues between normal and castrated mice. The final conclusion is that there is a marked sex influence in the susceptibility of mice to T. cruzi experimental infections.

The in vitro activity of four 2-nitropropene derivatives, 1-(3-benzothienyl)-2-nitropropene (N1), 1-(3-thienyl)-2-nitropropene (N2), 1-(5-bromo-2-thienyl)-2-nitropropene (N3) and 1-(4-bromo-2-thienyl)-2-nitropropene (N4), were tested against cultures of the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Cytotoxicity studies were performed using Vero cells. The blood trypomastigotes, amastigotes and epimastigotes showed differential degrees of sensitivity towards the four tested compounds; the highest activity against the epimastigotes and blood tripomastigotes was exhibited by N1, followed by N3, N4 and finally N2. In contrast, whereas the compounds N1, N3 and N4 exerted similar magnitudes of activity against amastigotes, N2 was found to be a much less potent compound. According to our results, the compound N1 had the highest level of activity (IC50: 0.6 μM) against epimastigotes.

Se evaluaron los efectos tóxicos de los venenos de cinco serpientes costarricenses en cuanto a su capacidad tripanocida contra dos cepas de Trypanosoma cruzi y sus efectos en cuanto a los mecanismos de muerte celular. Los venenos de Bothrops asper, Bothriechis schlegelii, Crotalus durissus durissus, Atropoides nummifer y A. picadoi, mostraron actividad tripanocida contra las formas de epimastigoto, amastigoto y tripomastigoto. Los venenos de B. asper y de A. nummifer presentaron la más alta citotoxicidad para las células Vero. Los de B. asper y B. schlegelii presentaron la más alta actividad en los epimastigotos de la cepa CL, mientras que los venenos de B. asper y el de A. nummifer fueron más eficientes contra los epimastigotos de la cepa Jennifer. El veneno de B. schlegelii produce un efecto proliferativo en las células Vero; mientras que el de C. d. durissus produce el mismo efecto en los epimastigotos de la cepa CL, ambos a la concentración de 2,5 μg/mL. Los valores de CI50 mostraron que se requieren menores cantidades contra los amastigotos en relación con los epimastigotos. Los venenos de B. asper y B. schlegelii presentan la más alta actividad contra los amastigotos de ambas cepas. Con los tripomastigotos sanguíneos de la cepa GA, los cinco venenos ocasionaron una disminución de la motilidad en los diferentes tiempos de exposición, pero el veneno de A. nummifer, en las concentraciones más bajas, mostró una actividad más marcada en comparación con los otros veneno. En cuanto a los efectos de los venenos, mediados por los grados de apoptosis, necrosis o proliferación celular, se observó que estos fenómenos se presentan y tienen relación con el tipo de veneno, su concentración y el tiempo de exposición.

The trypanocide effect of venoms from five Costa Rican species of snakes was evaluated against two strains of Trypanosoma cruzi and their cellular toxic effects were likewise observed. The venoms of Bothrops asper, Bothriechis schlegelii, Crotalus durissus durissus, Atropoide nummifer and A. picadoi showed evident trypanocide action against epimastigotes, amastigotes and trypomastigotes. The venoms of B. asper and B. schlegelii were shown to be the most active against the epimastigotes of the CL strain, whereas those of B. asper and A. nummifer were more effective against the epimastigotes of the Jennifer strain. The venoms of B. schlegelii and C.d. durissus, at the lowest concentrations of 2.5 μg/mL, were able to trigger a proliferative effect on Vero cells and epimastigotes of the CL strain, respectively. The IC50 values showed that lower amounts of venoms are necessary in order to inhibit amastigotes as compared to epimastigotes. The venoms of B. asper and B. schlegelii exhibited the highest activity against amastigotes of both T. cruzi strains. All venoms were able to arrest motility of blood trypomastigotes of the GA strain at different times and the most active in this case was A. nummifer venom. The toxic effects of the venoms measured by the degree of apoptosis, necrosis and cell proliferation that they produced showed that all these events occur and are related to the type of venom, its concentration and exposure time.

An ecological pilot project for the control of Triatoma dimidiata allowed a new evaluation four and five years after environmental modifications in the peridomestic areas of 20 households. It was verified that the two groups of houses, 10 case-houses and 10 control-houses, were free of insects after those periods of time. In the first group, the owners started a chicken coop in the backyard and a colony of bugs was found there without infesting the house. In the second group, the inhabitants of one house once again facilitated the conditions for the bugs to thrive in the same store room, reaffirming that man-made ecotopes facilitates colonization. This ecological control method was revealed to be reliable and sustainable and it is recommended to be applied to those situations where the vectors of Chagas disease can colonize houses and are frequent in wild ecotopes.

Thirty-four Leishmania isolates obtained from Costa Rican patients, from different geographical areas, were characterized by isoenzyme electrophoresis and indirect immunofluorescense with monoclonal antibodies. Thirty-two were characterized as L. panamensis strains and two were L. braziliensis variants. We confirm the evident predominance of L. panamensis as the main etiological agent of leishmaniasis in Costa Rica and the existence of L. braziliensis in the country.

Um grupo de pacientes com doença de Chagas vem sendo acompanhado desde a fase aguda, na Costa Rica, com tempos de evolução entre 14 e 44 anos (mediana de 32 anos). Em todos a doença aguda foi bem comprovada, não sendo realizado tratamento específico em nenhum deles, contra o Trypanosoma cruzi. Todos apresentaram pelo menos uma sorologia positiva ao longo da fase crônica, mas em três deles as técnicas sorológicas convencionais se tomaram parmanentemente negativas em diversos exames ealizados em diferentes laboratórios, entre 1981 e 1986. Nestes três pacientes também a pesquisa de anticorpos líticos foi negativa (um caso) ou negativo-duvidosa (dois casos), permanecendo consistentemente positiva nos três outros pacientes com sorologia convencional reagente. Atualmente todos os seis pacientes se apresentam assintomáticos e com xenodiagnóstico negativo. Apenas um deles apresenta distúrbio eletrocardiogràfico mínimo e inespecífico (bloqueio incompleto do ramo direito) e, um outro, pequeno retardo do trânsito esofagiano à prova de metacolina. Levanta-se a hipótese de cura espontânea da doença de Chagas, fato que deve ser raro e que merece maior investigação.

Six Costa Rican Chagas' disease patients, with wellknown acute phase history and no specific treatment were examined in several occasions during 39, 24, 32, 16 and 14 years, respectively, from the onset. Nome of the patients presented heart abnormalities as revealed by the conventional EKG and ergometry, exceptfor one of them with an incomplete block of the right bundle branch. Also, no alterations of the oesophagus motility was detected manometrically except for another patient who presented a slight hypersensivity reaction to a pharmacological test (Mecholyl). Three out of six patients became serologically negative in 1981, remaining as such until 1986. Besides the conventional serology, the search of protective ("lytic") antibodies was also performed in 1985 and 1986, being completely negative in one of the "cured" patients and dubious in the other two. The hypothesis that these three patients had as spontaneous cure, based on the clinical, serological and parasitologica l findings is discussed.