Abstract To understand the ecoepidemiology of fleas and their interactions with domestic and wild animals, it is necessary to decode the cycles of flea abundance in relation to host species and environmental factors. The province of Misiones, known for its biodiversity and land use changes, provides an excellent study location. We assessed the diversity, prevalence, abundance, and parasitic intensity of fleas collected from 1153 rodents and opossums in various environments in the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest of Argentina, considering phytogeography and land use. Our findings were consistent with previous studies conducted in humid regions of Argentina and the Atlantic Forest in Brazil. Hosts with high population density exhibited greater flea prevalence and abundance, and widely distributed hosts showed higher flea species richness and diversity. Significant similarities in flea similarity indices among phytogeographic areas, especially in forest. Environments with an anthropogenic gradient exhibited marked dissimilarities, with higher species richness and diversity in less disturbed sites. These parameters may be influenced by the presence of polyxenous Ctenocephalides, Polygenis, and Adoratopsylla fleas co-infesting opossum in urban areas. These findings provide valuable insights into the ecoepidemiology of fleas, their relationships with host species, and the impact of environmental factors in a strategic Atlantic forest ecoregion. animals Misiones changes location 115 Brazil areas dissimilarities sites Ctenocephalides Polygenis coinfesting co infesting ecoregion 11 1

RESUMEN INTRODUCCIÓN El trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) se caracteriza por alteraciones en la comunicación y patrones restrictivos del comportamiento. El Aislamiento Social, Preventivo y Obligatorio (ASPO) en Argentina generó cambios en las dinámicas familiares de personas con TEA. El objetivo del estudio fue describir el impacto del ASPO en el acompañamiento de niños/as con TEA. MÉTODOS Se creó un instrumento específico de diseño mixto, con implementación de encuestas virtuales a familiares de personas con TEA. RESULTADOS Las 66 encuestas obtenidas revelaron ventajas, tales como la posibilidad de compartir tiempo en familia y conocer las necesidades de las/os hijas/os, el establecimiento de un ambiente con estímulos adecuados y ausencia de distractores, y la enseñanza con ritmos de aprendizaje y contenidos ajustados a las necesidades de niños/as con TEA. También se encontraron dificultades para la socialización: surgimiento de comportamientos no adaptativos (crisis, ansiedad, agresividad), barreras en la comunicación entre docentes y familias, imposibilidad de acceder a terapias y obstáculos para acceder a terapias virtuales. DISCUSIÓN El ASPO incidió en la vida cotidiana de las personas con TEA, de manera similar a lo observado en otras latitudes. A partir de lo experimentado durante el ASPO se proponen estrategias contextualizadas a la situación de pandemia actual y a potenciales escenarios similares.

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by alterations in communication and restrictive behavior patterns. The Social, Preventive and Compulsory Isolation in Argentina changed family dynamics of people with ASD. The objective of this study was to describe the impact of isolation on accompanying children with ASD. METHODS A specific instrument of mixed design was created by conducting virtual surveys to relatives of ASD children. RESULTS The 66 surveys included in the study revealed advantages, such as the possibility of sharing family time and recognizing children’s needs, environment with adequate stimuli and without distractors as well as teaching according to learning pace and content adjusted to ASD children. They also found difficulties in socialization: emergence of non-adaptive behaviors (crisis, anxiety, aggressiveness), communication barriers between teachers and families, therapy inaccessibility and obstacles to access to online therapies. DISCUSSION The isolation affected ASD people’s daily life, similarly as in other countries. Based on the experiences during the isolation, strategies are proposed within the framework of the current pandemic situation and for potential similar scenarios.

ABSTRACT Objective. Determine and characterize areas at potential risk for the occurrence of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Latin America. Method. Ecological observational study with observation units defined by municipalities with CL transmission during 2014-2018. Environmental and socioeconomic variables available for at least 85% of municipalities were combined in a single database, using R software. Principal component analysis was combined with hierarchical cluster analysis for the formation of clusters of municipalities according to their similarity. The V-test was used to define positive or negative association of variables with clusters and separation by natural divisions to determine which contributed more to each cluster. Cases were included to attribute CL risk for each cluster. Results. The study included 4 951 municipalities with CL transmission (36.5% of municipalities in Latin America); seven clusters were defined by their association with 18 environmental and socioeconomic variables. Historical risk of CL is associated positively and in descending order with the Amazonian, Andean, and Savanna clusters; and negatively with the Forest/perennial, Forest/cultivated, and Forest/populated clusters. The Agricultural cluster showed no association with CL cases. Conclusions. The study made it possible to identify and characterize CL risk by clusters of municipalities and to understand the characteristic epidemiological distribution patterns of transmission, providing program managers with better information for intersectoral interventions to control CL.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Determinar y caracterizar áreas de riesgo potencial de la ocurrencia de leishmaniasis cutánea (LC) en América Latina (AL). Método. Estudio observacional ecológico con unidades de observación definidas por municipios con transmisión de LC entre 2014-2018. Se utilizaron variables medioambientales y socioeconómicas disponibles para al menos 85% de los municipios, combinados en una sola base de datos, a través del software R. Se combinó la metodología de análisis de componentes principales con un análisis de conglomerados jerárquicos para la formación de conglomerados de municipios en función de su similitud. Se estimó el V-test para definir la asociación positiva o negativa de las variables con los conglomerados y separación por divisiones naturales para determinar cuáles contribuyeron más a cada conglomerado. Se incorporaron los casos para atribuir el riesgo de LC para cada conglomerado. Resultados. Se incluyeron en el estudio 4 951 municipios con transmisión de LC (36,5% del total en AL) y se definieron siete conglomerados por su asociación con 18 variables medioambientales y socioeconómicas. El riesgo histórico de LC se asocia de manera positiva y en forma decreciente con los conglomerados Amazónico, Andino y Sabana; y de manera negativa con los conglomerados Boscoso/perenne, Boscoso/cultivo y Boscoso/poblado. El conglomerado Agrícola no reveló ninguna asociación con los casos de LC. Conclusiones. El estudio permitió identificar y caracterizar el riesgo de LC por conglomerados de municipios y conocer el patrón propio epidemiológico de distribución de la transmisión, lo que proporciona a los gestores una mejor información para las intervenciones intersectoriales para el control de la LC.

RESUMO Objetivo. Determinar e caracterizar as áreas de risco de ocorrência de leishmaniose cutânea na América Latina. Método. Estudo observacional ecológico com unidades de observação definidas por municípios com transmissão de leishmaniose cutânea entre 2014 e 2018. Foram usadas as variáveis ambientais e socioeconômicas disponíveis em 85% ou mais dos municípios, reunidas em uma única base de dados com o uso do software R. A metodologia de análise de componentes principais foi combinada a uma análise de conglomerados com agrupamento hierárquico para formar conglomerados de municípios por semelhança. O teste V foi usado para estabelecer a associação (positiva ou negativa) das variáveis com os conglomerados e uma separação por divisões naturais foi usada para determinar as variáveis que mais contribuíram em cada conglomerado. Os casos foram incluídos para avaliar o risco de leishmaniose cutânea em cada conglomerado. Resultados. A amostra do estudo compreendeu 4.951 municípios com transmissão de leishmaniose cutânea (36,5% do total na América Latina). Foram definidos sete conglomerados por apresentarem associação com 18 variáveis ambientais e socioeconômicas. Foi observada associação positiva e decrescente do risco histórico de leishmaniose cutânea com os conglomerados Amazônico, Andino e Savana e negativa com os conglomerados Mata/perene, Mata/cultivo e Mata/povoado. O conglomerado Agrícola não demonstrou associação com casos de leishmaniose cutânea. Conclusões. Este estudo permitiu identificar e caracterizar o risco de leishmaniose cutânea por conglomerados de municípios e conhecer o padrão epidemiológico de distribuição da transmissão da doença, oferecendo às autoridades dados melhores para subsidiar as intervenções intersetoriais para o controle da leishmaniose cutânea.

RESUMO Objetivo. Determinar e caracterizar as áreas de risco de ocorrência de leishmaniose cutânea na América Latina. Método. Estudo observacional ecológico com unidades de observação definidas por municípios com transmissão de leishmaniose cutânea entre 2014 e 2018. Foram usadas as variáveis ambientais e socioeconômicas disponíveis em 85% ou mais dos municípios, reunidas em uma única base de dados com o uso do software R. A metodologia de análise de componentes principais foi combinada a uma análise de conglomerados com agrupamento hierárquico para formar conglomerados de municípios por semelhança. O teste V foi usado para estabelecer a associação (positiva ou negativa) das variáveis com os conglomerados e uma separação por divisões naturais foi usada para determinar as variáveis que mais contribuíram em cada conglomerado. Os casos foram incluídos para avaliar o risco de leishmaniose cutânea em cada conglomerado. Resultados. A amostra do estudo compreendeu 4.951 municípios com transmissão de leishmaniose cutânea (36,5% do total na América Latina). Foram definidos sete conglomerados por apresentarem associação com 18 variáveis ambientais e socioeconômicas. Foi observada associação positiva e decrescente do risco histórico de leishmaniose cutânea com os conglomerados Amazônico, Andino e Savana e negativa com os conglomerados Mata/perene, Mata/cultivo e Mata/povoado. O conglomerado Agrícola não demonstrou associação com casos de leishmaniose cutânea. Conclusões. Este estudo permitiu identificar e caracterizar o risco de leishmaniose cutânea por conglomerados de municípios e conhecer o padrão epidemiológico de distribuição da transmissão da doença, oferecendo às autoridades dados melhores para subsidiar as intervenções intersetoriais para o controle da leishmaniose cutânea.

ABSTRACT Objective. Determine and characterize potential risk areas for the occurrence of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Latin America (LA). Method. Ecological observational study with observation units defined by municipalities with CL transmission between 2014-2018. Environmental and socioeconomic variables available for at least 85% of the municipalities were used, combined in a single database, utilizing the R software. The principal component analysis methodology was combined with a hierarchical cluster analysis to group clusters of municipalities based on their similarity. The V-test was estimated to define the positive or negative association of the variables with the clusters and separation by natural breaks was used to determine which ones contributed the most to each cluster. Information on cases was also incorporated in the analyses to attribute CL risk for each cluster. Results. This study included 4,951 municipalities with CL transmission (36.5% of the total in LA) and seven clusters were defined by their association with 18 environmental and socioeconomic variables. The historical risk of CL is positively associated with the Amazonian, Andean and Savannah clusters in a decreasingly manner; and negatively associated with the Forest evergreen, Forest/crop and Forest/populated clusters. The Agricultural cluster did not reveal any association with the CL cases. Conclusions. The study made it possible to identify and characterize the CL risk by clusters of municipalities and to recognize the epidemiological distribution pattern of transmission, which provides managers with better information for intersectoral interventions to control CL.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Determinar y caracterizar áreas de riesgo potencial de la ocurrencia de leishmaniasis cutánea (LC) en América Latina (AL). Método. Estudio observacional ecológico con unidades de observación definidas por municipios con transmisión de LC entre 2014-2018. Se utilizaron variables medioambientales y socioeconómicas disponibles para al menos 85% de los municipios, combinados en una sola base de datos, a través del software R. Se combinó la metodología de análisis de componentes principales con un análisis de conglomerados jerárquicos para la formación de conglomerados de municipios en función de su similitud. Se estimó el V-test para definir la asociación positiva o negativa de las variables con los conglomerados y separación por divisiones naturales para determinar cuáles contribuyeron más a cada conglomerado. Se incorporaron los casos para atribuir el riesgo de LC para cada conglomerado. Resultados. Se incluyeron en el estudio 4 951 municipios con transmisión de LC (36,5% del total en AL) y se definieron siete conglomerados por su asociación con 18 variables medioambientales y socioeconómicas. El riesgo histórico de LC se asocia de manera positiva y en forma decreciente con los conglomerados Amazónico, Andino y Sabana; y de manera negativa con los conglomerados Boscoso/perenne, Boscoso/cultivo y Boscoso/poblado. El conglomerado Agrícola no reveló ninguna asociación con los casos de LC. Conclusiones. El estudio permitió identificar y caracterizar el riesgo de LC por conglomerados de municipios y conocer el patrón propio epidemiológico de distribución de la transmisión, lo que proporciona a los gestores una mejor información para las intervenciones intersectoriales para el control de la LC.

BACKGROUND The Nyssomyia genus and Lutzomyia subgenus include medical important species that are Latin American leishmaniases vectors. Little is known about the phylogenetic relationships of closely-related species in each of these taxonomic groups that are morphologically indistinguishable or differentiated by very subtle details. OBJECTIVES We inferred the phylogenetic relationships of closely-related species within both the Nyssomyia genus and the Lutzomyia subgenus using a cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) fragment. METHODS The sampling was carried out from 11 Argentinean localities. For genetic analyses, we used GenBank sequences in addition to our sequences from Argentina. Kimura 2-parameter (K2P) genetic distance and nucleotide divergence (Da) was calculated between closely-related species of Nyssomyia genus, Lutzomyia subgenus and between clades of Lutzomyia longipalpis complex. FINDINGS The K2P and Da values within species of Nyssomyia genus and Lutzomyia subgenus were lower than the divergence detected between clades of Lu. longipalpis complex. The haplotype network analyses within Lutzomyia subgenus showed shared haplotypes between species, contrary to Nyssomyia genus with none haplotype shared. Bayesian inference within Nyssomyia genus presented structuring by species. MAIN CONCLUSIONS This study evidences the phylogenetic proximity among closely-related species within Nyssomyia genus and Lutzomyia subgenus. The COI sequences of Nyssomyia neivai derived from the present study are the first available in GenBank.

American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL) has two main scenarios of transmission as follows: scattered cases in rural areas and urban outbreaks. Urban AVL is in active dispersion from the northeastern border of Argentina-Paraguay-Brazil to the South. The presence of Lutzomyia longipalpis was initially reported in urban environments in the northwestern border of the country. The presence of Lu. longipalpis, environmental variables associated with its distribution, and its genetic diversity were assessed in Salvador Mazza, Argentina, on the border with Bolivia. The genetic analysis showed high haplotype diversity, low nucleotide diversity, and low nucleotide polymorphism index. We discuss the hypothesis of an expanding urban population with introgressive hybridisation of older haplogroups found in their path in natural forest or rural environments, acquiring a new adaptability to urban environments, and the possibility of changes in vector capacity.

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of Lutzomyia longipalpis in the Argentine city of Concordia, in the province of Entre Rios, without record of this species despite previous samplings, but with canine cases of visceral leishmaniasis and Lu. longipalpis reports both, from Northern Argentine localities and from the city of Salto, Uruguay, located just across the river and the international border. This study confirms the presence of Lu. longipalpis and Nyssomyia whitmani, related to the risk of visceral and tegumentary leishmaniasis, respectively, in Concordia-Entre Rios. The presence of Lu. longipalpis confirms the ongoing dispersal along the Uruguay river basin. The presence of these species in the study area alerts about the risk of transmission of Leishmania spp.

BACKGROUND Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is an endemic disease in northeastern Argentina including the Corrientes province, where the presence of the vector and canine cases of VL were recently confirmed in December 2008. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to assess the modelling of micro- and macro-habitat variables to evaluate the urban environmental suitability for the spatial distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis presence and abundance in an urban scenario. METHODS Sampling of 45 sites distributed throughout Corrientes city (Argentina) was carried out using REDILA-BL minilight traps in December 2013. The sampled specimens were identified according to methods described by Galati (2003). The analysis of variables derived from the processing of satellite images (macro-habitat variables) and from the entomological sampling and surveys (micro-habitat variables) was performed using the statistical software R. Three generalised linear models were constructed composed of micro- and macro-habitat variables to explain the spatial distribution of the abundance of Lu. longipalpis and one composed of micro-habitat variables to explain the occurrence of the vector. FINDINGS A total of 609 phlebotominae belonging to five species were collected, of which 56% were Lu. longipalpis. In addition, the presence of Nyssomyia neivai and Migonemya migonei, which are vectors of tegumentary leishmaniasis, were also documented and represented 34.81% and 6.74% of the collections, respectively. The explanatory variable normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) described the abundance distribution, whereas the presence of farmyard animals was important for explaining both the abundance and the occurrence of the vector. MAIN CONCLUSIONS The results contribute to the identification of variables that can be used to establish priority areas for entomological surveillance and provide an efficient transfer tool for the control and prevention of vector-borne diseases.

Introducción. La leishmaniasis visceral es una enfermedad desatendida de alta letalidad que amerita que se profundice en los estudios locales para diseñar estrategias efectivas de control. En América, su transmisión ya se ha evidenciado en las zonas urbanas, en donde el reservorio principal es el perro doméstico. Las condiciones socioeconómicas, así como las representaciones y las prácticas de los grupos domésticos podrían desempeñar un papel crucial y poco conocido en su transmisión. Objetivo. Analizar las representaciones y las prácticas de prevención y afrontamiento de la leishmaniasis visceral humana y canina, así como los factores socioeconómicos de riesgo. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio transversal de casos y controles. Se definió´caso´ como un grupo doméstico en el que, al menos, un integrante tuviera antecedentes de leishmaniasis visceral humana y hubiera sido notificado por el Ministerio de Salud Pública. El´control´ se definió como un grupo doméstico sin integrantes con antecedentes de la enfermedad. A partir de la información primaria, se caracterizó demográfica y socialmente a la población, se estableció la calidad de las viviendas, se hizo una clasificación de los conocimientos y las actitudes en torno a la enfermedad, y se describieron las prácticas asociadas al riesgo y la presencia de leishmaniasis visceral canina. Resultados. La mala calidad de la vivienda (p=0,001), las personas del grupo doméstico que permanecían fuera de esta después de las 18 horas (razón de momios, OR ( odds ratio) =4,5; IC 95% 1,69-12,18), la reproducción sin control de la raza canina (OR=15,7; IC 95% 3,91-63,2) y la presencia de leishmaniasis visceral canina en el domicilio (OR=120,3; IC 95% 18,51-728,3), se asociaron positivamente o incrementaron el riesgo de contraer leishmaniasis visceral humana. Conclusión. Se observó que la pobreza estructural constituía un factor social determinante del riesgo, y que aumentaba la probabilidad de contacto entre humanos y vectores por la mala calidad de la vivienda y el hacinamiento. El factor de riesgo más importante para la leishmaniasis visceral humana fue la tenencia en el domicilio de perros con la enfermedad.

Introduction: Visceral leishmaniasis is an often overlooked disease with high lethality rates about which there is need of additional local studies to inform the design of effective control strategies. The urbanization of its transmission has already been verified in America, with domestic dogs being the primary reservoirs and vectors of the disease. Socio-economic conditions, demographics and practices of domestic groups typically present in urban settings may play a specific role in the transmission of the infection, which is still poorly understood. Objective: To analyze the sociodemographic characteristics, risk factors and overall practices concerning prevention and coping strategies of visceral leishmaniasis, in both human beings and canines. Materials and methods: This study utilized a cross-sectional case-control design. Cases were defined as a domestic group where the Public Health Ministry had at least one record of a member with human visceral leishmaniasis. Control cases were defined as a domestic group without a clinical record of the disease. The populations were characterized demographically and socially using primary information sources. Measures of household quality and a ranking of knowledge and attitudes towards visceral leishmaniasis were constructed, and practices associated with the presence, and the risk for canine visceral leishmaniasis were described. Results: Low household quality (p=0.001), a member of the domestic group out of the household after 6:00 pm (OR=4.4; 95% CI: 1.69-12.18), the uncontrolled racial breeding of dogs (OR=15.7; 95% CI: 3.91-63.2), and the presence of infected dogs infected in the household (OR=120.3; 95% CI: 18.51-728.3) were variables positively associated with the risk of infection. Conclusion: We observed certain social risk factors, primarily low household quality and overcrowding, associated with structural poverty that could increase human-vector contact probability. The most important risk factor for human visceral leishmaniasis was the possession of infected dogs in the household.

ABSTRACT A retrospective analytical method is presented, based on theoretical eco-epidemiology, applied on a subnational spatial scale. This method was used here to describe scenarios for the transmission of leishmaniasis in the Argentine province of Misiones— bordering Brazil and Paraguay—and formed the basis for recommendations for surveillance and control appropriate to the subnational scale. An exhaustive search of the literature on leishmaniasis in the province was carried out. Three scenarios for the transmission of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and visceral leishmaniasis (VL) were found, corresponding to three periods: from 1920 to 1997, during which the transmission of CL distributed over time and space was confirmed; 1998 to 2005, during which there were focal outbreaks of CL; and 2006 to 2014, during which outbreaks were also reported and the geographical dispersion of VL was documented. To describe the risk scenarios and the anthropic processes that produce them, the results were summarized and integrated into the social, historical, and bio-ecological context of each period. Surveillance and control recommendations are based on the territory studied. They include establishing active surveillance to monitor possible rising trends in parasitic and vector circulation, conducting studies of any focal outbreak in order to confirm indigenous transmission and severity. Also, it should be a legal requirement for persons responsible for projects that alter the environment to adopt additional control measures, such as studies assessing transmission risk, risk mitigation, early detection, and timely case management.

RESUMEN Se presenta una metodología analítica retrospectiva, basada en el marco teórico de la eco-epidemiología, anclada en una escala espacial subnacional. Esta metodología, aplicada aquí a la caracterización de escenarios de transmisión de la leishmaniasis en la provincia argentina de Misiones —fronteriza con Brasil y Paraguay— permitió fundamentar recomendaciones de vigilancia y control apropiadas a dicha escala. Se realizó una búsqueda exhaustiva de la literatura sobre leishmaniasis en esa provincia y se determinaron tres escenarios de transmisión de leishmaniasis cutánea (LC) y visceral (LV), correspondientes a tres períodos: 1920-1997, en el que se constató la transmisión de LC, dispersa en el tiempo y el espacio; 1998-2005, en el que hubo brotes focales de LC; y 2006-2014 en el que, además, se registraron brotes y se documentó la dispersión geográfica de la LV. Para caracterizar los escenarios de riesgo y los procesos antrópicos que los producen, los resultados se sintetizaron e integraron en el contexto socio-histórico y bio-ecológico de cada período analizado. Se fundamentan recomendaciones de vigilancia y control en el territorio estudiado, entre ellas, establecer una vigilancia activa para monitorear posibles tendencias al incremento de la circulación parasitaria y vectorial y, ante la aparición de un foco, realizar estudios para verificar la transmisión autóctona y la intensidad del evento. Además, se debe establecer la obligación legal de tomar medidas adicionales de control por los responsables de los proyectos que impliquen modificación ambiental, como la realización de estudios de evaluación del riesgo de transmisión, y acciones de mitigación del riesgo, detección temprana y tratamiento oportuno de los casos.

We report the presence of the competent vector for Leishmaniaspp, Migonemyia migonei, and theEvandromyia cortelezzii-sallesi complex south of its known distribution in the central temperate region of Argentina, in the province of Córdoba. The persistence of this phlebotomine in the northern border of the province, its association with a case of cutaneous leishmaniasis, and the new record in the outskirts of the city of Córdoba, the second most populated in the country, strengthens the need for regular vector surveillance and a case detection-sensitive health system in vulnerable regions, even in temperate climates.

Ninety-five veronicellid slugs identified as Phyllocaulis variegatus were collected in Puerto Iguazú, Misiones Province, Argentina. Specimens were examined for parasites. Metacercariae of the genus Brachylaima (Brachylaimidae) were recovered from the body cavity near the female genital pore. The results establish the capability of P. variegatus to act as an intermediate host of Brachylaima sp. in the area. This study represents the first record of metacercariae of Brachylaima sp. in Argentina.

Noventa y cinco babosas terrestres de la familia Veronicellidae identificadas como Phyllocaulis variegatus fueron recolectadas en Puerto Iguazú, provincia de Misiones, Argentina para ser examinadas en busca de parásitos. Las metacercarias del género Brachylaima fueron halladas en la cavidad del cuerpo cerca del poro genital femenino. Este resultado establece la capacidad de P. variegatus de actuar como hospedador intermediario de Brachylaima sp. en el área y representa el primer registro de metacercarias de Brachylaima sp. en Argentina.

Since the description of Lutzomyia longipalpis by Lutz and Neiva more than 100 years ago, much has been written in the scientific literature about this phlebotomine species. Soares and Turco (2003) and Lainson and Rangel (2005) have written extensive reviews focused on vector-host-parasite interactions and American visceral leishmaniasis ecology. However, during the last two decades, the success of Lu. longipalpis in colonising urban environments and its simultaneous geographical spreading have led to new theoretical and operational questions. Therefore, this review updates the general information about this species and notes the more challenging topics regarding the new scenario of urbanisation-spreading and its control in America. Here, we summarise the literature on these issues and the remaining unsolved questions, which pose recommendations for operational research.

Lutzomyia longipalpis was recorded for the first time in Argentina in 2004, in the province of Formosa. In the following years, the vector spread to the south and west in the country and was recorded in the province of Chaco in 2010. From November 2010-May 2012, captures of Phlebotominae were made in the city of Resistencia and its surroundings, to monitor the spread and possible colonisation of Lu. longipalpis in the province of Chaco. In this monitoring, Lu. longipalpis was absent in urban sampling sites and its presence was restricted to Barrio de los Pescadores. This suggests that the incipient colonisation observed in 2010 was not followed by continuous installation of vector populations and expansion of their spatial distribution as in other urban centres of Argentina.

This study aimed to analyse changes in the spatial distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis in Posadas, an urban area located in northeastern Argentina. Data were obtained during the summer of 2007 and 2009 through two entomological surveys of peridomiciles distributed around the city. The abundance distribution pattern for 2009 was computed and compared with the previous pattern obtained in 2007, when the first human visceral leishmaniasis cases were reported in the city. Vector abundance was also examined in relation to micro and macrohabitat characteristics. In 2007 and 2009, Lu. longipalpis was distributed among 41.5% and 31% of the households in the study area, respectively. In both years, the abundance rates at most of the trapping sites were below 30 Lu. longipalpis per trap per night; however, for areas exhibiting 30-60 Lu. longipalpis and more than 60 Lu. longipalpis, the areas increased in both size and number from 2007-2009. Lu. longipalpis was more abundant in areas with a higher tree and bush cover (a macrohabitat characteristic) and in peridomiciles with accumulated unused material (a microhabitat characteristic). These results will help to prioritise and focus control efforts by defining which peridomiciles display a potentially high abundance of Lu. longipalpis.