La dispersión es el transporte de las semillas desde el individuo parental hacia otro lugar, donde idealmente puedan establecerse. Existen varias formas de clasificar los síndromes de dispersión y se basan en características morfológicas que están adaptadas al vector de transporte (biótico o abiótico). Este estudio tiene por objetivo evaluar la distribución de frecuencias de los síndromes de dispersión de semillas a lo largo del gradiente altitudinal del valle de La Paz (W Bolivia). Utilizando la lista de especies del valle, se completó la información de los síndromes que presentan las especies y se relacionó su frecuencia con la altitud y el hábito de crecimiento, postulando que los pisos de mayor altitud, que presentarían mayor porcentaje de herbáceas, mostrarán predominancia de dispersión autocórica. Los resultados mostraron que existe un efecto de los pisos altitudinales y el hábito sobre el síndrome de dispersión, según una comparación de modelos (AIC 3077.3 Wi1). La anemocoria fue más frecuente a mayor altitud (65.6%), también se encontró mayor porcentaje de especies con dispersión zoocórica a altitud intermedia y baja (montano, altimontano y andino inferior). La mayor frecuencia de anemocoria fue para especies herbáceas (>50%) y se halló un incremento de zoocoria para las leñosas (arbustos y árboles) con ca. 55%. Es posible postular que nuestros resultados estén explicados, al menos en parte, por la menor disponibilidad de animales dispersores (aves, mamíferos, u otros vertebrados) a mayor altitud.

Seed dispersal is the movement of seeds from the parental individual to another place, where ideally it can be established. Dispersal syndromes can be categorized in several ways, based upon the vector (biotic or abiotic). This study aimed at analyzing the frequency distribution of seed dispersal syndromes along an altitudinal gradient in the La Paz valley (W Bolivia). Based on the list of plant species for this valley, we completed the information on the dispersal syndrome for those species we were able to gather adequate data and related their frequency with elevation and habit. predicting that the higher altitude regions, which will also present more herbaceous species, will show a greater predominance of autocoric species. Results show an effect of elevation and growth habit on the dispersal syndromes based on model comparison (AIC 3077.3 Wi1). The frequency of anemochory was greater at higher altitude (65.6%), we also found that zoochory was more frequent at intermedíate and low ("montano, altimontano & andino inferior altitudinal") regions. On the other hand, a higher frequency of anemochory was found within herbaceous species (>50%) and also an increase in zoochory for woody (shrubs and trees) with ca. 55%. It is safe to pose that our results can be explained, at least partially, by the lower availability of animal vectors (birds, mammals, or others) at higher altitude.

Pocos estudios han documentado la diversidad del bosque tucumano-boliviano en Bolivia, especialmente en Tarija, donde muchos de los trabajos consisten en informes inéditos. Pese a dichos vacíos de información, se sabe que la diversidad de especies arbóreas en estos bosques disminuye con la latitud, destacando la importancia del estudio de los mismos en el sector boliviano. Por otro lado, todavía no se conoce cómo cambia la diversidad de estos bosques con relación a la altitud. El presente trabajo analizó la variación en la diversidad α y β, además de su contribución relativa a la diversidad y, en un gradiente altitudinal de 2.000 m en la alta cuenca del río Bermejo en el sector boliviano. En 2006 se establecieron 13 parcelas temporales de muestreo de 0.1 ha entre 650-2.600 m de altitud, en lugares representativos de la vegetación, donde se midieron todas las plantas leñosas con un dap ≥2.5 cm. En total registramos 2.758 individuos pertenecientes a 143 especies, 84 en las formaciones submontana y montana y 26 en la altimontana. Encontramos un pico de riqueza de especies a elevaciones medias entre 900 y 1.200 m con una disminución marcada entre 1.700 y 2.000 m. La diversidad β fue elevada dentro y entre las formaciones vegetales, destacando el alto recambio de especies en áreas reducidas y la necesidad de tener más estudios en esta ecorregión. La distribución de las especies estuvo determinada por la altitud y la pendiente. Además de contribuir con el análisis de la diversidad α y β, con esta publicación se pretende llamar la atención sobre la ejecución de nuevas investigaciones en la zona para documentar el cambio en la diversidad tras diversas presiones a la biodiversidad que se han estado registrando en los últimos años.

Few studies documented the diversity at Tucuman-Bolivian forest in Bolivia, especially in Tarija, where most studies are inedited reports. In spite of the knowledge gaps, it is known that tree species diversity within these forests reduces with latitude, highlighting the importance of studying them in Bolivia. Furthermore, studies about the altitudinal variation of diversity within these forests are still scarce. This study analyzed the variation in alpha and β diversity, besides their relative contribution to y diversity, in an elevational gradient of 2000 m in the upper river basin of Bermejo in Bolivia. In 2006, we established 13 temporary sampling plots of 0.1 ha, between 650 and 2600 m above sea level, located in representative vegetation stands, where we measured all woody plants with diameter at breast high (dbh) higher than 2.5 cm. We registered 2,758 individuals from 143 species, 84 in both lower montane and montane forest and 26 in the upper montane forest. We found a mid-elevation species richness peak between 900 and 1,200 m, with a steep decrease between 1,700-2,000 m. β diversity was high within and between forest types, standing out the high species turnover in reduced areas and the need of more studies in this eco-region. Species distribution was determined by elevation and slope. Besides documenting alpha and β diversity, this publication aims to calli for new research in the study area to assess the changes in diversity after different pressures that have been registered within last years.

En este estudio, examinamos la distribución geográfica de la castaña y el impacto de la deforestación ocurrida entre los años 2010 y 2015. Específicamente: a) modelamos la distribución de la especie usando el algoritmo Maxent para confirmar si su distribución se encuentra restringida a los bosques tropicales húmedos del norte de Bolivia, b) usando información generada por OTCA-MMAyA (2016) sobre la deforestación ocurrida entre los años 2010-2015, estimamos la pérdida de bosque con castaña en este periodo y c) utilizando información sobre censos completos realizados en la TCO Tacana II (norte de La Paz) y la RNVSA Manuripi (suroeste de Pando), calculamos el número de árboles de castaña que podrían haberse perdido por tal deforestación. Los resultados muestran que la castaña en Bolivia ocupa cerca de 84 mil km² (16% menos que la estimación histórica), distribuida en dos áreas, una en la región Heath-Alto Madeira (subcuencas de los ríos Tahumanu, Yata, Abuná, Acre, Manurimi y Madre de Dios) y la otra en la región de Iténez (en la subcuenca del mismo nombre). Cerca del 0.76% (639 km²) del bosque con castaña fue deforestado en el periodo 2010-2015, sugiriendo la pérdida de 27 mil árboles de castaña (0.15% del total histórico estimado). Futuras investigaciones que evalúen las variaciones geográficas de la fenología reproductiva y su relación con el clima o la diversidad genética de las poblaciones de castaña que crecen en Bolivia serán importantes para determinar el estado actual de la especie y proponer pautas de manejo.

In this study, we evaluated the geographical distribution of the Brazil nut in Bolivia, and the impact on its populations caused by deforestation from 2010 to 2015. Specifically: a) we modeled the distribution of the species using the Maxent algorithm in order to confirm if its distribution is restricted to the humid tropical forests of the northern of Bolivia; b) we estimated the loss of Brazil nut forest occurred between 2010- 2015 using information published by OTCA-MMAyA (2016); and c) we calculated the number of Brazil nut trees that could have been lost due to such deforestation using information on complete censuses carried out in TCO Tacana II (north of La Paz) and RNVSA Manuripi (southwest of Pando). The results suggest that Brazil nut forest covers about 84 thousand km² (16% less than the historical estimation) distributed in two areas, one in the Heath-Alto Madeira region covering the sub-basins of the Tahumanu, Yata, Abuná, Acre, Manurimi and Madre de Dios (97% of cover), and the other in the Iténez region, in the northern portion of the sub-basin having the same name (3%). About 0.76% (639 km²) of Brazil nut forest was deforested in the period 2010-2015, affecting about 27,000 Brazil nut trees (0.15% of the historical total estimated). Future research evaluating geographic variations in reproductive phenology and its relation to climate or to the genetic diversity of Brazil nut populations inhabiting Bolivia will be important in order to determine the current state of the species and to propose management guidelines.

The documentation of the Neotropical species of the Arecaceae family, based on the recent contributions to its taxonomy and its relationship with natural landscapes, updates the spatial patterns to which they adapt in their range of distribution. In this case 121 records of specimens of the 11 species of the genus Attalea of Bolivia and their relationship with 30 ecological systems that approximate their scope of distribution at regional level are released. To this end, the geographical coordinates were systematized, verified and corrected. Localities of all the specimens collected from the genus Attalea in order to compare them with ecological systems, using the ArgGis tools. We then elaborate a dendrogram (species vs. ecological systems) using the minimum distance method in the R program. The analysis of the relation of the species with the ecological systems highlights a species that does not compose to the southwest amazon: A. eichleri and that is native to ecological systems of the Cerrado. Among the SW Amazonian Attalea species, A. blepharopus (endemic to Bolivia) is isolated from the others and the rest subgroup species according to their presence in forests and savannas, in addition to the subandean and alluvial, as it is for A. princeps, which is found in 17 systems (57%). Eight species of Attalea are common with Peru and 10 with Brazil. It is important to relate the hierarchical grouping of the Attalea species with ecological systems in function of landscape dynamics to document their space patterns and also for their conservation.

La documentación de las especies neotropicales de la familia Arecaceae, basada en los recientes aportes a su taxonomía y su relación con los paisajes naturales, actualiza los patrones espaciales a los cuales se adaptan en su rango de distribución. En este caso se relevan 121 registros de especímenes de las 11 especies del género Attalea de Bolivia y su relación con 30 sistemas ecológicos que aproximan su ámbito de distribución a nivel regional. Para ello se sistematizó, se verificó y corrigieron las coordenadas geográficas vs. localidades de todos los especímenes coleccionados del género Attalea con el fin de cotejarlos con los sistemas ecológicos, utilizando las herramientas del ArgGis. Seguidamente elaboramos un dendrograma (especies vs. sistemas ecológicos) utilizando el método de distancia mínima en el programa R. El análisis de la relación de las especies con los sistemas ecológicos resalta una especie que no compone al sudoeste amazónico: A. eichleri y que procede de sistemas ecológicos del Cerrado. Entre las especies de Attalea amazónicas, A. blepharopus (endémica de Bolivia) se aísla de las demás y el resto subagrupa a especies según su presencia afín en bosques y sabanas, además del subandino y aluvial, como es para A. princeps, que se encuentra en 17 sistemas (57%). Ocho especies de Attalea son comunes con Perú y 10 con Brasil. Es importante relacionar la agrupación jerárquica de las especies de Attalea con los sistemas ecológicos en función a dinámicas paisajísticas para documentar sus patrones de espacio y también para su conservación.

Diversos aditivos químicos têm sido utilizados para garantir a polimerização de genes com ilhas CpG. O objetivo do trabalho foi desenhar uma mistura que potencie PCR para amplificar genes com ilhas CpG. Para esta finalidade foram analisados fragmentos dos genes IRS2 e HNF1a com o programa EMBOSS CpG Report. Os iniciadores foram desenhados com o programa Primer 3 e se analisaram com o programa e-PCR. Foram utilizados três aditivos químicos: Albumina sérica bovina (0,1µg/µlL, Dimetilsulfóxido (5%) e formamida (5%) para 5 ensaios de PCR: dois usando um único aditivo, dois combinando dois aditivos e um combinando três aditivos. As amplificações com as misturas se realizaram com as enzimas, Taq Nativa, taq Recombinante e Taq Platinum. A qualidade das ampliações foi provada por sequenciação. Fragmentos sem ilhas CpG (HNF-1a) amplificaram com as três enzimas, sem o uso dos aditivos porém apresentaram problemas de pureza na sequenciação. Os fragmentos do gene IRS2 com ilhas CpG amplificaram apenas com a combinação de três aditivos dimetilsulfóxido, albumina sérica bovina e formamida, independentemente da enzima usada, as sequências foram limpas. A conclusão que a mistura de três aditivos é uma solução que permite obter ampliações de alta qualidade em genes com ilhas CpG, com cromatogramas limpos na secuenciação.

Several chemical additives have been used to assure polymerization in CpG islands.The aim of the present work was to design a PCR enhancer mixture in order to amplify GC-rich genes. Fragments of IRS2 and HNF1a genes were analyzed using EMBOSS CpG Report Software. Primers were designed with the Primer3 Software and were tested with ePCR Software. Three additives were used: BSA (0.1µg/µL), DMSO (5%) and formamide (5%), in five PCR assays, two using one additive, two combining two additives and one with all additives. DNA sequences were amplified with the following enzymes: Native Taq, recombinant Taq and platinum Taq DNA polymerase. Amplicon quality was examined by sequencing. HNF1a gene was amplified without additives; however, the sequences were not amplified and showed purity problems in sequencing. The gene fragments IRS2 with CpG islands were amplified with additives DMSO, BSA and Formamida mixture, notwithstanding the enzyme used. These sequences were clean. DMSO-BSA-Formamide mixture can be a solution to obtain GC-rich DNA amplicons with such a high quality that it generates neat chromatograms during sequencing.

Diversos aditivos químicos han sido utilizados para garantizar la polimerización de genes con islas CpG. El objetivo de este trabajo fue diseñar una mezcla potenciadora de PCR para amplificar genes con islas CpG. Con ese fin se analizaron fragmentos de los genes IRS2 y HNF1a con el programa EMBOSS CpG Report. Los iniciadores se diseñaron con el programa Primer 3 y se analizaron con el programa e-PCR. Se usaron tres aditivos químicos: Albúmina sérica bovina (0,1µg/µL), dimetilsulfóxido (5%) y formamida (5%) para 5 ensayos de PCR: dos usando un solo aditivo, dos combinando dos aditivos y uno combinando tres aditivos. Las amplificaciones con las mezclas se realizaron con las enzimas Taq Nativa, taq Recombinante y Taq Platinum. La calidad de los amplicones se probó por secuenciación. Fragmentos sin islas CpG (HNF-1a) amplificaron con las tres enzimas, sin el uso de los aditivos pero presentaron problemas de pureza en la secuenciación. Los fragmentos del gen IRS2 con islas CpG amplificaron sólo con la combinación de tres aditivos dimetilsulfóxido, albúmina sérica bovina y formamida, independientemente de la enzima usada, las secuencias fueron limpias. Se concluye que la mezcla de tres aditivos es una solución que permite obtener amplicones de alta calidad en genes con islas CpG, con cromatogramas limpios en la secuenciación.

The presence of Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dunhami Causey in Colombia (Department of Amazonas) is confirmed for the first time through direct comparison of mtDNA cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) barcodes and nuclear rDNA second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) sequences with topotypic specimens of An. dunhami from Tefé, Brazil. An. dunhami was identified through retrospective correlation of DNA sequences following misidentification as Anopheles nuneztovari s.l. using available morphological keys for Colombian mosquitoes. That An. dunhami occurs in Colombia and also possibly throughout the Amazon Basin, is of importance to vector control programs, as this non-vector species is morphologically similar to known malaria vectors including An. nuneztovari, Anopheles oswaldoi and Anopheles trinkae. Species identification of An. dunhami and differentiation from these closely related species are highly robust using either DNA ITS2 sequences or COI DNA barcode. DNA methods are advocated for future differentiation of these often sympatric taxa in South America.

Malaria transmission in the Southern Colombian state of Putumayo continues despite the absence of traditional vector species, except for the presence of Anopheles darlingi near the southeastern border with the state of Amazonas. In order to facilitate malaria vector incrimination in Putumayo, 2445 morphologically identified Anopheles females were tested for natural infection of Plasmodium vivax by ELISA. Specimens tested included An. apicimacula (n = 2), An. benarrochi B (n = 1617), An. darlingi (n = 29), An. mattogrossensis (n = 7), An. neomaculipalpus (n = 7), An. oswaldoi (n = 362), An. peryassui (n = 1), An. punctimacula (n = 1), An. rangeli (n = 413), and An. triannulatus (n = 6). Despite being overwhelmingly the most anthropophilic species in the region and comprising 66.1% of the mosquitoes tested, An. benarrochi B was not shown to be a vector. Thirty-five An. rangeli and one An. oswaldoi were naturally infected with P. vivax VK210. Sequence data were generated for the nuclear second internal transcriber space region of 31 of these 36 vivax positive mosquitoes (86.1%) to confirm their morphological identification. An. oswaldoi is known to be a species complex in Latin America, but its internal taxonomy remains unresolved. Herein we show that the An. oswaldoi found in the state of Putumayo is genetically similar to specimens from the state of Amapá in Brazil and from the Ocama region in the state of Amazonas in Venezuela, and that this form harbors natural infections of P. vivax. That An. rangeli and this member of the An. oswaldoi complex are incriminated as malaria vectors in Putumayo, is a novel finding of significance for malaria control in Southern Colombia, and possibly in other areas of Latin America.

Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) benarrochi, An. (N.) oswaldoi, and An. (N.) rangeli are the most common anthropophilic mosquitoes in the southern Colombian state of Putumayo. Adult females are most commonly collected in epidemiological studies, and this stage poses significant problems for correct identification, due to overlapping inter-specific morphological characters. Although An. rangeli is easy to identify, the morphological variant of An. benarrochi found in the region and An. oswaldoi are not always easy to separate. Herein we provide a rapid molecular method to distinguish these two species in Southern Colombia. Sequence data for the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) region of rDNA was generated for link-reared progeny of An. benarrochi and An. oswaldoi, that had been identified using all life stages. ITS2 sequences were 540 bp in length in An. benarrochi (n = 9) and 531 bp in An. oswaldoi (n = 7). Sequences showed no intra-specific variation and ungapped inter-specific sequence divergence was 6.4%. Species diagnostic banding patterns were recovered following digestion of the ITS2 amplicons with the enzyme Hae III as follows: An. benarrochi (365, 137, and 38 bp) and An. oswaldoi (493 and 38 bp). This polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) assay provides rapid, accurate, and inexpensive species diagnosis of adult females. This will benefit future epidemiological studies and, as PCR amplification can be achieved using a single mosquito leg, the remaining specimen can be either retained as a morphological voucher or further used in vector incrimination studies. That An. benarrochi comprises a complex of at least two species across Latin America is discussed.