ABSTRACT Irrigated areas have expanded globally to support the increasing population and mitigate the impacts of climate change and variability. The crop water balance accounting in the root zone estimates soil water deficits by considering water inputs and outputs that impact crop yield. In this study, we developed the CropWaterBalance R-package to assist users in irrigation scheduling. The package offers functionalities for estimating the reference evapotranspiration through various methods and comparing their performances. By incorporating user-provided management-allowed depletions, the package calculates several agrometeorological parameters including crop evapotranspiration rates, soil water deficit in the root zone, and water stress coefficient. The package also provides recommendations for irrigation timing and net irrigation depth. variability yield study Rpackage R scheduling performances userprovided user provided managementallowed management allowed depletions rates coefficient depth

ABSTRACT The pre-sprouted sugarcane plantlets (PSP) system aims the production of healthy and vigorous plants in reduced time, reducing the number of stalks needed for planting. Irrigation is used in all PSP system stages and water management plays an important role. Stage 1 acclimation follows the budding stage and lasts for approximately 21 days. At this stage the plantlets are grown within an agricultural greenhouse to improve initial development. The objectives of this trial were: to identify the irrigation management which results in highest plantlet growth; to evaluate if responses to irrigation management depends on the cultivar; to evaluate water consumption and water use efficiency at early stage under PSP system; and to assess the water management effect on substrate water matrix potential and stomatal conductance in the cultivar IACSP95-5000. The experimental design was a split-plot randomized block design with four replications. Treatments applied in the plots were different irrigation depths based on daily reference evapotranspiration (ETo): 96, 80, 64 and 48%, estimated by Penman–Monteith method. In the subplots, there were sugarcane cultivars IAC91-1099, IACSP95-5000 and IACSP97-4039. Irrigation management based on 80% ETo resulted in higher growth, dry mass accumulation and greater leaf area. Water use efficiency was not influenced by irrigation management. IAC91-1099 presented higher overall growth, leaf area and dry mass accumulation. Water consumption was cultivar-dependent in irrigation managements using 80 and 96% of ETo. Water use efficiency was higher in IAC91-1099 and lower in IACSP95-5000. Lower substrate water matrix potential reduced leaves stomatal conductance, impairing IACSP95-5000 plantlet growth.

ABSTRACT A key step for any modeling study is to compare model-produced estimates with observed/reliable data. The original index of agreement (also known as original Willmott index) has been widely used to measure how well model-produced estimates simulate observed data. However, in its original version such index may lead the user to erroneously select a predicting model. Therefore, this study compared the sensibility of the original index of agreement with its two newer versions (modified and refined) and provided an easy-to-use R-code capable of calculating these three indices. First, the sensibility of the indices was evaluated through Monte Carlo Experiments. These controlled simulations considered different sorts of errors (systematic, random and systematic + random) and errors magnitude. By using the R-code, we also carried out a case of study in which the indices are expected to indicate that th empirical Thornthwaite’s model produces poor estimates of daily reference evapotranspiration in respect to the standard method Penman-Monteith (FAO56). Our findings indicate that the original index of agreement may indeed erroneously select a predicting model performing poorly. Our results also indicate that the newer versions of this index overcome such problem, producing more rigorous evaluations. Although the refined Willmott index presents the broadest range of possible values, it does not inform the user if a predicting model overestimate or underestimate the simulated data, resulting in no extra information regarding those already provided by the modified version. None of the indices represents the error as linear functions of its magnitude in respect to the observed process.

ABSTRACT The intensification of drought incidence is one of the most important threats of the 21st century with significant effects on food security. Accordingly, there is a need to improve the understanding of the regional impacts of climate change on this hazard. This study assessed long-term trends in probability-based drought indices (Standardized Precipitation Index and Standardized Evapotranspiration Index) in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Owing to the multi-scalar nature of both indices, the analyses were performed at 1 to 12-month time scales. The indices were calculated by means of a relativist approach that allowed us to compare drought conditions from different periods. The years 1961-1990 were used as the referential period. To the authors’ best knowledge, this is the first time that such relativist approach is used in historical trend analysis. The results suggest that the evapotranspiration rates have intensified the regional drought conditions. The time scale used to calculate the indices significantly affected the outcomes of drought trend assessments. The reason behind this feature is that the significant changes in the monthly regional patterns are limited to a specific period of the year. More specifically, virtually all significant changes have been observed during the first trimester of the rainy season (October, November and December). Considering that this period corresponds to critical plant growth stages (flowering/regrowth/sprouting) of several major crops (e.g. Sugarcane and Citrus), we may conclude that these significant changes have increased the risk of crop yield reductions due to agricultural drought.

Abstract Water deficit is a major factor limiting crop yield in rainfed areas. We hypothesized that under water deficit the decrease of photosynthetic production stimulates: carbohydrate remobilization from leaves, stems and roots to reproductive organs; and decreasing flowering intensity and pod development. The present work aims to study the effect of water deficit during bloom and grain pod-filling stages in two indeterminate soybean cultivar, Vtop and Nidera. The following physiological parameters were evaluated by means of daily CO2 assimilation rate (Ai), dynamic of carbohydrates in tissues, plant growth, grain yield and yield components. The study was conducted in a greenhouse with plants sown in tanks of 0.5 m3. Regardless of the phenological phase, water deficit reduced Ai, plant growth and number of pods and seeds per plant. The fact that grain yield was less affected by water deficit at bloom than at grain pod-filling stage was attributed to larger seeds found at bloom. In both treatments, a sharp reduction on carbohydrate content was found in leaves, stem and roots at the beginning of pod formation. The high amounts of carbohydrates remobilized for seed growth, along with the high values of Ai observed in well-watered plants, indicate that grain yield of soybeans is source rather than sink limited. On the other hand, in water deficit treatments, a new stimulus for carbohydrate storage was found in the leaves and stem at the beginning of grain maturity, suggesting that grain yield was limited by sink capacity.

Despite of the agronomic importance for water management, few studies of sugarcane roots have been performed under field conditions during the crop cycle. The aim of this study was to determine the cumulative root density (LA), root distribution on soil profile and the effective rooting depth (ERD) for three sugarcane cultivars using the minirhizotron method. A field experiment was done with sugarcane cultivars IACSP94-2094, IACSP94-2101 and SP79-1011 grown under subsurface drip fertigation. Soil chemical and physical characteristics were also evaluated. Root evaluations were taken at 38, 58, 123, 185 and 205 days during the second ratoon, considering the soil profile until 0.8 m depth. The highest LA and root growth rates were found up to 0.4 m soil layer for all cultivars. Root growth rate varied during the crop cycle, with the highest values being found between 38 and 58 days after ratoon (DAR). There was a genotypic variation in root growth, with IACSP94-2101 showing the highest LA of 12.9 mm cm–2. The total root length observed around the tube (0.16892 m2) was 10.8, 5.9 and 2.5 m up to 0.8 m depth for IACSP94-2101, SP79-1011 and IACSP94-2094, respectively at 205 DAR. The effective rooting depth varied during the cycle for IACSP94-2094, but all cultivars presented an effective depth of 0.4 m at 205 DAR.

A pupunheira (Bactris gasipaes Kunth), que vem sendo largamente cultivada no Brasil para produção de palmito, é propagada por sementes, sendo a formação de mudas a etapa bastante importante para o êxito do cultivo. Esta pesquisa foi realizada entre setembro de 2005 e agosto de 2006, em Campinas, SP, e teve por objetivo avaliar a compactação do substrato no crescimento da parte aérea de mudas de pupunheira. As plantas foram cultivadas em vasos de PVC de 25 cm de diâmetro e 27 cm de altura, em substrato arenoso. Os níveis de compactação empregados, impostos mediante o uso de prensa hidráulica, foram: 0; 0,204; 2,037; 4,074; e 6,112 kg cm-2, que propiciaram as seguintes densidades: 1,11; 1,12; 1,64; 1,84; e 2,00 g cm-3, respectivamente. O efeito dos tratamentos sobre o crescimento das plantas foi avaliado por meio de medidas mensais das variáveis: altura da planta e altura da haste, diâmetro do colo e comprimento da folha mais jovem completamente expandida (folha +1). A densidade de 1,64 g cm-3 propiciou o maior crescimento em altura total e da haste, diâmetro do colo e comprimento da folha +1, que no fim do experimento corresponderam a 80 cm, 30 cm, 28 cm e 50 cm, respectivamente. Essa foi a densidade em que as mudas se tornaram aptas ao plantio no campo mais cedo, aos cinco meses.

Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) has been widely grown in Brazil for the production of heart- of-palm. The species is propagated by seeds and the formation of seedlings is a very important step for the success of the cultivation. This work was carried out from September, 2005 to August, 2006, in Campinas, SP, and its objective was to evaluate the influence of substrate compactation on the growth of seedlings of peach palm. The seedlings were grown in PVC pots with 25 cm of diameter and 27 cm of height in a sandy substrate. The compactation levels reached by means of a hydraulic press were the following: 0; 0.204; 2.037; 4.074 and 6.112 kg cm-2, which corresponded to the following densities: 1.11; 1.12; 1.64; 1.84 and 2.00 g cm-3, respectively. The effects of the treatments on seedlings growth were evaluated by monthly measurements of the following growth variables: total height, stem height, stem diameter, length of the raquis of the youngest fully expanded leaf (leaf + 1). The density of 1.64 g cm-3 provided the highest growth in total height, stem height, stem diameter and length of the youngest fully expanded leaf (leaf +1), which at the end of the experiment were 80 cm, 30 cm, 28 mm and 50 cm, respectively. This was the density under which seedlings could be transplanted to field earlier, at 5 months of age.

Tomato cropping (Solanum lycopersicum L.) under protected cultivation using substrates and drip fertigation has improved sustainable production systems especially fruit quality and plant health. However, little is known for tomato plants when considering the interaction between substrate volume and irrigation frequency. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) fiber substrate volumes and drip irrigation frequencies on the vegetative growth and fruit yield of tomato plants under greenhouse conditions. The experimental design consisted of randomized blocks arranged in a 3 × 2 factorial with four replicates. Treatments consisted of three substrate volumes (5.0; 7.5 and 10.0 L per plant) and two irrigation frequencies (once and five times per day). Leaf area index tended to increase in plants grown with the largest substrate volume (10 L). Although substrate volumes affected shoot dry matter, no effects on tomato yield and its components were observed. However, plants grown with 5 L of substrate and irrigated once a day produced a greater number of non-marketable fruit due to the higher incidence of calcium deficiency symptoms (blossom end rot). When plants were grown in 5 L or 7.5 L of substrate volume, high irrigation frequency favored the vegetative growth, stomatal conductance, CO2 assimilation and transpiration and fruit yield. Fruit yield and healthy fruits were favored by high irrigation frequency and did not depend on the substrate volume.

Para avaliar o potencial da água nas plantas de Coffea arabica L., foi desenvolvido um experimento em Mococa (SP), de agosto de 2005 a julho de 2006, com as cultivares Mundo Novo (MN), Obatã (OB) e Ouro-Verde (OV). As cultivares OB e OV tinham oito anos de idade, e as plantas do MN haviam sido recepadas há cinco anos. Os espaçamentos entre as plantas de MN, OB e OV foram de 3,6 x 1,0 m; 2,5 x 1,0 m e 3,5 x 0,74 m respectivamente. As avaliações dos potenciais da água das plantas na antemanhã (ψam) foram realizadas a cada duas semanas. O potencial da água na folha durante o período diurno (ψa) foi medido no final de abril. Os dados de ψam na folha variaram em função da quantidade de água no solo, com as oscilações decorrentes da precipitação pluvial sazonal. Os valores de ψam foram de -1,29; -1,60 e -1,68 MPa nos meses de estiagem e -0,06; -0,07 e -0,07 MPa nos meses de maiores precipitações para MN, OB e OV respectivamente. Esses valores são importantes para caracterizar o estado hídrico das folhas do cafeeiro ao longo do ano agrícola, visto que o período de estresse hídrico coincidiu com a fase de indução (fevereiro a junho) e maturação das gemas florais, bem como o período de maiores volumes de precipitação pluvial com a granação e maturação dos frutos.

In order to assess the xylem water potential in Coffea arabica L. plants, a field experiment was carried out in Mococa, São Paulo State, Brazil, from August 2005 to July 2006 with the following cultivars: Mundo Novo (MN), Obatã (OB) and Ouro-Verde (OV). The OB and OV cultivars were eight years old, and MN plants had been topped five years ago. Spacing among the plants were 3.6 x 1.0 m, 2.5 x 1.0 m and 3.5 x 0.75 m, respectively. Predawn leaf water potential (ψam) was measured each 15 days. Xylem water potential along the day (ψa) was measured at the end of April. Data concerning leaf ψam varied according to the soil water profile as affect by seasonal rainfall. ψam values were -1.29, -1.60 and -1.68 MPa during dry months and -0.06, -0.07 and -0.07 MPa during months of greater precipitations for MN, OB and OV, respectively. These values were important and relevant to Arabic coffee cultivars in order to characterize plant water status along the year, because the period of water stress was coincident with the phase of induction (February at June) and maturation of flowering buds; and the period of greater rainfall with the phase of grain filling and fruit maturation.

A influência de doenças na produtividade do morangueiro cultivado em estufa, bem como sua associação com o manejo da irrigação é pouco conhecida. Desta forma, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito de diferentes níveis de água e coberturas do solo na sanidade e produtividade do morangueiro, sob ambiente protegido. O experimento foi realizado em Atibaia, estado de São Paulo, Brasil, de abril a dezembro de 1995. O delineamento utilizado foi o fatorial 2 × 3, em blocos ao acaso, com cinco repetições, sendo estudados duas coberturas do solo (plástico transparente e preto) e três níveis de água. A irrigação, por gotejamento, foi aplicada quando o potencial de água no solo alcançava -10, -35 e -70 kPa à profundidade de dez centímetros. A cultivar utilizada foi a Campinas IAC 2712. As plantas cultivadas nos potenciais de água de -10 e -35 kPa ou com o plástico transparente apresentaram as melhores produtividades. A equação estimada foi y = -233,54 + 1,56x (R² = 0,78). A irrigação a -70 kPa e o plástico preto favoreceram a maior incidência de patógenos do sistema radicular no período de outubro a dezembro.

The occurrence of diseases and its influence on strawberry yield in a greenhouse as well as its association with water management are still not well known. So, the aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of different water levels and soil mulches on strawberry plant health and yield in a greenhouse. The experiment was carried out at Atibaia, State of São Paulo, Brazil, from April to December 1995. The experimental design was a 2 × 3 factorial, in randomized blocks, with five replications, and consisted of two soil mulches and three water levels. The soil mulches consisted of clear or black plastic. Trickle irrigation was applied whenever the soil water potential reached -10, -35 and -70 kPa at a depth of ten centimeters. Cultivar Campinas IAC 2712 was used. Plants grown at a soil water potential of -10 and -35 kPa, with clear plastic mulch provided the best yields. A linear function fitted well considering total yield data and irrigation depths. The equation was y = -233.54 + 1.56x (R² = 0.78). The irrigation level of -70 kPa and the use of black plastic favored a greater incidence of soil-borne diseases late in the harvest season.

O desenvolvimento vegetativo e a produção do morangueiro submetido a diferentes níveis de irrigação e coberturas do solo ainda não é bem conhecido, principalmente para diferentes ambientes de cultivo. Foram instalados dois experimentos em Atibaia, SP, Brasil, em 1995, um em ambiente protegido e o outro em campo aberto, para avaliar o crescimento vegetativo e a produção da cultivar Campinas IAC-2712, sob diferentes níveis de irrigação e coberturas do solo (polietileno preto e transparente). Três níveis de potencial de água no solo foram utilizados a fim de determinar o momento de irrigação, correspondendo a -0,010 (N1), -0,035 (N2) e -0,070 (N3) MPa, medidos por tensiômetros instalados a 10 cm de profundidade. Os experimentos foram instalados em esquema fatorial 2 × 3, em blocos ao acaso com cinco repetições. No cultivo protegido, os níveis de irrigação de -0,010 e -0,035 MPa e a cobertura de solo com plástico transparente favoreceram o crescimento vegetativo, avaliado por meio da altura da planta, máxima dimensão horizontal da planta e índice de área foliar, além da produção total de frutos comerciáveis. No cultivo em campo aberto não houve efeito de tratamentos devido a ocorrência de chuvas durante o período experimental.

The vegetative growth and yield of strawberry in relation to irrigation levels and soil mulches are still not well known, mainly for different environmental conditions. Two experiments were carried out in Atibaia, SP, Brazil, during 1995, one in a protected environment and the other in an open field, to evaluate the cultivar Campinas IAC-2712, under different irrigation levels and soil mulches (black and clear polyethylene). Three water potential levels in the soil were used in order to define irrigation time, corresponding to -0.010 (N1), -0.035 (N2), and -0.070 (N3) MPa, measured through tensiometers installed at the 10 cm depth. A 2 × 3 factorial arrangement was adopted, as randomized complete block, with 5 replicates. In the protected cultivation, the irrigation levels of -0.010 and -0.035 MPa and the clear plastic mulch favored the vegetative growth, evaluated through plant height, maximum horizontal dimension of the plant, leaf area index, as well as by total marketable fruit yield and its components (mean number and weight of fruits per plant). In the open field cultivation, no effect of treatments due to rainfall were observed.

Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito da fertirrigação por gotejamento, utilizando-se emissores com diferentes espaçamentos (0,50 ou 0,80 m) e profundidades de instalação (superficial, 0,10 e 0,20 m), na distribuição espacial do sistema radicular do cafeeiro. Observaram-se no cafeeiro irrigado e adubado de forma convencional diferentes condições de desenvolvimento radicular, variando conforme os tratamentos impostos. Para as plantas irrigadas por tubogotejadores com emissores espaçados a cada 0,50 m, a profundidade radicular efetiva foi menor (média de 0,63 m) do que a observada para as plantas irrigadas por emissores posicionados a cada 0,80 m (média de 0,70 m). No manejo nutricional por fertirrigação observou-se menor desigualdade na profundidade radicular efetiva entre os tratamentos, bem como, em um aumento médio de 51,1% de densidade de raízes. Houve tendência de manutenção do volume radicular na região próxima aos emissores, enquanto nos pontos mais distantes do desenvolvimento do bulbo úmido, o crescimento radicular foi de 77%. A irrigação das plantas por tubogotejadores enterrados a 0,10 m de profundidade proporcionou maior desenvolvimento radicular em resposta à fertirrigação.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the drip fertirrigation system, by using emitters with different arranging of spaces (0.50 or 0.80 m) and depths of installation (superficial, 0.10 or 0.20 m on the ground), over the root spatial distribution of coffee tree. The coffee tree conventionally irrigated and fertilized presented different conditions of root development, varying according to the treatment imposed. For plants irrigated by emitters spaced every 0.50 m, the effective root depth was smaller (mean of 0.63 m) than that observed for plants irrigated by emitters spaced every 0.80 m (mean of 0.70 m). The fertirrigation nutritional management allowed an uniform effective root depth among the treatments, as well as an increase of 51.1% in root density. There was a trend of maintenance of root volume in the places closer to the emitters, while in the most distant points of development of wet bulb, the growth of roots reached 77%. The plants irrigated by 0.10 m depth emitters provided the largest root development in response to fertirrigation.

A antracnose do morangueiro, causada por Colletotrichum fragariae Brooks, é uma das mais importantes doenças da cultura. Além dos rizomas, o fungo causa lesões em estolhos, pecíolos, limbos foliares, pedúnculos e frutos. A inoculação de plantas com este patógeno é muitas vezes imprescindível em trabalhos que necessitam uniformidade de inóculo e reprodução de sintomas da doença. Isso ocorre em testes de patogenicidade, em testes de eficácia de métodos de controle, em estudos sobre a variabilidade de diferentes isolados do patógeno e em avaliação de germoplasma quanto à resistência à doença. Objetivou-se, neste trabalho, avaliar comparativamente sete métodos de inoculação de morangueiro com C. fragariae, descrevendo os sintomas obtidos em diferentes órgãos da planta. Sintomas foliares (mancha preta da folha) foram observados principalmente quando se utilizou pulverização do inóculo. Os métodos mais eficientes em produzir murcha e lesões nos rizomas foram: ferimento e deposição de 5 mL de inóculo nos rizomas, ferimento e deposição de uma gota de inóculo nos pecíolos e injeção de inóculo nos rizomas.

The anthracnose crown rot, caused by Colletotrichum fragariae Brooks, is an important disease of strawberries. The fungus also damages stolons, petioles, leaf blades and fruits. The inoculation of C. fragariae is necessary to ensure uniformity and appearance of characteristic symptoms of the disease in pathogenicity tests, variability evaluation of different isolates, efficacy of control measures and germplasm screening for resistance. This study evaluated seven inoculation methods of C. fragariae on strawberry and reports symptoms observed in each case. Symptoms of black leaf spot were mainly observed when the inoculum was sprayed on the plants. The best methods to reproduce wilting and crown rot were: 5 mL of inoculum placed on wounded crowns, a drop of inoculum placed on wounded petioles and crown injection.

O presente estudo foi realizado no município de Atibaia, maior produtor de morangos do Estado de São Paulo, com o objetivo de avaliar a profundidade efetiva do sistema radicular do morangueiro em diferentes níveis de água e coberturas do solo. O experimento foi instalado em esquema fatorial 2 x 2 (coberturas do solo e níveis de água). Como coberturas do solo foram utilizados os plásticos transparente e preto. As irrigações foram realizadas sempre que o potencial de água no solo atingia -0,010 e -0,070 MPa, a 10 cm de profundidade. As amostragens de raiz foram realizadas ao lado da planta, de 10 em 10 cm até 60 cm de profundidade, com trado tipo caneca com 7 cm de diâmetro, aos 159 dias após o plantio, com cinco repetições. Os resultados obtidos em comprimento de raiz (cm) por unidade de volume do solo (cm³) indicam maior concentração de raízes nas camadas superficiais. As coberturas do solo e níveis de água não influenciaram no comprimento de raízes nas faixas de profundidade do solo avaliadas. Para fins de irrigação, a profundidade efetiva do sistema radicular foi de 30 cm.

The present work was carried out in Atibaia, the major site of strawberry production in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The aim of this work was to evaluate the root effective depth of the strawberry crop under different water levels and soil covers. The experiment was conducted using a factorial scheme 2x2 (soil covers and water levels). As soil covers a clear plastic and a black plastic were used. Irrigation was applied until the soil water potential reached -0.010 and -0.070 MPa, at 10 cm depth. The root samples were collected beside the plants each 10 cm, up to 60 cm depth, using an auger hole with 7 cm of diameter, 159 days after planting, with five replications. The results concerning root length per unit of volume showed that the roots are concentrated in the upper langers. Soil covers and water levels did not influence the root length distribution. For irrigation purposes the effective strawberry root depth is 30 cm.

Este trabalho visa desenvolver um método para estimativa da necessidade de irrigação suplementar em regiões tropicais e subtropicais. Simularam-se irrigações para fevereiro e julho mediante a realização de balanço hídrico diário, para 21 e 20 anos, respectivamente, de dados meteorológicos de Ribeirão Preto (SP). Para cada mês, anotaram-se os intervalos entre irrigações e calculou-se a freqüência de ocorrência. Os resultados permitem ao usuário obter graficamente o intervalo entre irrigações, para mês, lâmina, coeficiente de cultura e porcentagem de ocorrência desejada.

This work develops a methodology for estimating supplementary irrigation requirement in tropical and subtropical regions. Irrigations were simulated for February and July through simple water balance technique, based on 21 and 20 years, respectively, of meteorological data from Ribeirão Preto, State of São Paulo, Brazil. In order to attend different situations of crops and soils, five levels of allowable soil water depletion (ASWD) and two crop coefficients (kc) were chosen. For each month, irrigation intervals were annotated and its relative frequency calculated. The results allowed to design graphically the irrigation interval, for each month, as a function of: irrigation depth; crop coefficient; and probability level addopted in a project.