Abstract Text comprehension involves the construction of a coherent mental representation, which requires the person to build bridges between the new information and the background knowledge. In adults, establishing associations between information provided by the text is frequently an automatic skill, while for children it implies an important cognitive effort. This ability develops gradually over time and is connected to the generation of inferences. Working memory and the ability to sustain attention are considered two crucial processes for comprehension. The purpose of this study is to analyze the role of working memory and sustained attention in the comprehension of narratives in 5 and 6-year-old children. The study included 100 children of 5 and 6 years of age, of both sexes, that participated with the informed consent of their parents. Three oral texts were narrated to the children by a professional storyteller. For each text, six questions were asked: three of literal content and three of inferential content. Additionally, two working memory tasks were administered with one task of sustained attention. Three analyses were performed: First, a correlation analysis, to study the associations between comprehension, working memory, and sustained attention measures. Then, a comparison analysis of comprehension, working memory, and sustained attention scores between ages 5 and 6. And finally, a path analysis to study the role of age, sustained attention, and working memory on comprehension. Spearman Rho analyses in the whole sample show that literal comprehension had a significant correlation with forward digit span (Rho = .37, p < .001), backward digit span (Rho = .37, p < .001), and with the sustained attention task (Rho = -.37, p < .001). Inferences showed a significant correlation with forward digit span (Rho = .36, p < .001), backward digit span (Rho = .46, p < .001), and with the sustained attention task (Rho = -.37, p < .001). Sustained attention measures showed a significant correlation with forward digit span (Rho = -.34, p < .001) and with backward digit span (Rho = -.37, p < .001). The comparison analysis indicated significant differences between 5- and 6-year-olds in sustained attention measures (t(98) = 3.08, SEM = 5.41, p < .01), literal comprehension (t(98) = 4.05, SEM = 0.59, p < .001), and inferences (U = 750.50, z = 3.50, p < .001), but not in forward digit span (t(98) = 1.43, SEM = 0.34, p = .16) and backward digit span (U = 1043.50, z = 1.49, p = .14). A model of interrelation was proposed with age as independent variable, comprehension as dependent variable, and working memory and sustained attention as mediating variables, being comprehension, a latent factor formed by literal comprehension and inferences, and working memory another latent factor formed by forward digits and backward digits span. The path analysis showed a good fit of the data to the model (c2(5) = 1.93, p = .86; AGFI = .97, CFI = .99, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .00). The analysis showed that 6-year-olds perform better than 5-year-olds in literal and inferential information, and in sustained attention, but not in working memory. The correlation analyses, on the other hand, indicated that comprehension measures are associated to working memory and sustained attention scores and the path analysis indicated that both working memory and sustained attention play a role in comprehension. This suggests that, in 5 and 6-year-olds, age has an effect on the comprehension of general information and the ability to generate inferences, but this effect is mediated, in part, by the child's ability to sustain attention on the narration and to temporarily store the information received while listening to it.

Resumen Comprender un texto es una actividad cognitiva compleja que implica la construcción de una representación mental coherente en la memoria. Un proceso importante para ello es la generación de inferencias. La memoria de trabajo ha mostrado ser un factor cognitivo importante para explicar las diferencias en comprensión e inferencias, al igual que la capacidad de sostener la atención. El propósito del presente trabajo consiste en estudiar la relación entre la memoria de trabajo y la atención sostenida en la comprensión de narraciones en niños de 5 y 6 años. Para ello, se trabajó con una muestra de 100 niños, quienes escucharon tres textos narrativos y respondieron preguntas acerca de su contenido literal e inferencial, y además realizaron dos pruebas de memoria de trabajo y una de atención sostenida. Los resultados indican que los niños de 6 años muestran desempeños mejores y significativos en la comprensión de información literal y en la respuesta a preguntas de inferencia que los niños de 5 años. Además, el análisis de correlación mostró que las medidas de comprensión se hallan vinculadas a medidas de atención sostenida y a medidas de memoria de trabajo. El análisis de senderos sugiere que, en niños de 5 y 6 años, las mejoras logradas en la comprensión general como producto de la edad están mediadas, en parte, por la capacidad del niño para mantener la atención en la narración y almacenar temporalmente la información recibida en la memoria de trabajo mientras la escucha.

Resumen Las tareas de fluidez verbal semántica (FVS) y fluidez verbal fonológica (FVF) son medidas sensibles para detectar y diagnosticar diversas patologías tanto en la población adulta como en la infantil. Dado que las tareas de FVS y FVF permiten detectar problemas específicos de determinadas facultades lingüísticas o cognitivas, el objetivo de este trabajo es indagar las posibles relaciones existentes entre FVS y FVF en una población de niños argentinos de nivel escolar primario de 3°, 5° y 7° grado y edades comprendidas entre los 8 y 12 años. Los 86 niños participantes respondieron a una tarea de FVS en la que se evaluaron cinco categorías (animales, partes del cuerpo, medios de transportes, ropa e instrumentos musicales) y una tarea de FVF en la que respondieron a los fonemas /f/, /a/, /s/. Se realizó un análisis de correlaciones cuyo resultado muestra que existe una asociación de mediana intensidad entre ambas tareas. Además, se llevaron a cabo un análisis factorial exploratorio y uno confirmatorio, que detectaron dos factores diferenciados: un factor verbal semántico y un factor verbal fonológico. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que los procesos fonológicos y semánticos se encuentran diferenciados desde edades tempranas, aunque por su correlación es posible concluir que ambos procesos confluyen en un mismo almacén de búsqueda en la memoria verbal.

Abstract Semantic verbal fluency tasks (SVF) and phonological verbal fluency tasks (PVF) are highly sensitive measures used to detect and diagnose different pathologies in adult and child populations. The results of numerous investigations point out differential performances between these two tasks both in adults and children. Based on this evidence, we intend to identify the possible connections between SVF and PVF in a group of Argentinian children aged 8 to 12 years old who attended to 3rd, 5th and 7th school primary levels. Participants answered to a SVF task which tested five categories (animals and body parts for living things and transports, cloth and musical instruments for inanimate objects domain) and a PVF task where the phonemes /f, a, s/ were assessed. A correlations analysis was carried out. The result showed there is a mild association between both tasks. In addition, an exploratory factor analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis were conducted. Two differential factors were detected: a semantic verbal factor and a phonological verbal factor. Our results show that phonological and semantic are different processes and function separately in early development, although due to their correlation it is possible to conclude that both processes converge in the same store in verbal memory.

Resumo No presente trabalho oferecemos dados de tarefas de fluência verbal para crianças argentinas de 3°, 5° e 7 ° ano do ensino fundamental. Os participantes foram avaliados com uma tarefa de fluência semântica, que testou as categorias de animais, frutas e legumes e partes do corpo para o domínio dos seres vivos e meios de transporte, instrumentos musicais e roupas para os objetos inanimados. As crianças também foram avaliadas com uma tarefa de fluência fonológica que testou os fonemas /f/, /a/ e /s/. Os dados obtidos apontam para diferenças de desempenho entre as tarefas e mostraram um melhor desempenho nas de fluência semântica. Além disso, nas tarefas de fluência semântica os participantes tiveram um melhor desempenho no domínio dos seres vivos. Tanto para fluência semântica quanto fonológica, as diferenças estiveram presentes quando os grupos foram comparados pelo nível de escolaridade, de modo que os alunos de 3° ano se dissociam significativamente dos 5° e 7 ° anos, produzindo menor quantidade de exemplares. Os resultados são discutidos à luz de possíveis diferenças originadas no desenvolvimento cognitivo, as funções executivas e o sistema semântico.

Abstract The aim of this work is to obtain data about the evolutionary pattern of performance in verbal fluency tasks for a sample of Argentinean primary school aged children (3rd, 5th y 7th grade) in semantic and phonological verbal fluency tasks. For the semantic fluency task, children were assessed in different categories: animals, fruits and vegetables, and body parts for living things domain, and means of transport, musical instruments and clothes for inanimate objects. For the phonological fluency assessment, children were tested with /f/, /a/and /s/phonemes. Both fluency tasks showed differences between grades, indicating the influence of education. Besides, irrespective of the grade, children performed better on the semantic fluency tasks. Results in the semantic fluency task also showed a better performance for the living things domain over the inanimate objects domain. Further analysis on the results showed that 3rd grade children have the worst performance, compared to 5th and 7th grade children. The results of our work are discussed taking in account cognitive mechanisms, executive functions and semantic memory development.

Resumen El objetivo del presente trabajo es obtener información del patrón evolutivo de desempeño en tareas de fluidez verbal para una muestra de niños argentinos de nivel primario de 3°, 5° y 7° grado. Se evaluó a los participantes con una tarea de fluidez semántica, en la que se evaluaron las categorías de animales, frutas y verduras, y partes del cuerpo para el dominio de seres vivos, y medios de transporte, instrumentos musicales y ropa para el de objetos inanimados. Asimismo fueron evaluados con una tarea de fluidez fonológica en la que se testearon los fonemas /f/, /a/ y /s/. Los datos obtenidos dan cuenta de diferencias de rendimiento entre las tareas de fluidez con un mejor desempeño en las tareas de fluidez semántica. Asimismo, en las tareas de fluidez semántica se observa un mejor rendimiento en el dominio de seres vivos. Las diferencias obtenidas en ambas tareas se identifican al comparar los grupos según escolaridad, siendo únicamente los niños de 3° grado los que, con menor cantidad de ejemplares recuperados, se disocian significativamente de los de 5° y 7° grado. Estos hallazgos son discutidos a la luz de posibles diferencias en función del desarrollo cognitivo, de las funciones ejecutivas y del sistema semántico.

Due to the fact that early literacy skills are crucial for reading and writing learning process, it is important to identify them in order to design teaching activities. Most of the former literacy studies have been carried out with middle class children and show that reading and writing learning process begins very early at home. The rate and the way reading and writing are developed is highly related with parents educational level and the kind and frequency of the literacy activities they propose. There are differences between social groups with regard to these activities that may cause knowledge differences at early age that may explain reading and writing learning process failure in low income children. From a developmental perspective there have been numerous studies focused mainly on literacy learning before formal teaching of reading and writing in school. These researches tempt to explore and describe the concepts, knowledge, skills and early actions of reading and writing as well as the social context where these developments occur. In the framework of these observations, the aim of the present study was to compare early reading and writing skills in three groups of children from different socioeconomic environment. From theoretical and methodological point of view we have take in account a cognitive psychology perspective to explore those variables considered early literacy skills such as phonological awareness, early writing skills among others as well as we have adopted as teaching and learning process framework Vigotsky's zone of proximal development as well as Bruner's scaffolding. The groups were described according to different variables such us age (measured up to May, 30th), sex and socioeconomic level. In order to measure the last variable, parents education level and job were considered according Sartú (1992) occupational scale. Using this variables three groups were selected: Group A was formed by 20 children mean age 5.5-year-olds from middle urban income families who attended a public kindergarten school situated in a middle class neighborhood. Group B was formed by 19 kids mean age 5.3-year-olds from low income families who attended to a public kindergarten school in a low income urban neighborhood. Group C was formed by 17 children mean age 5.3-year-olds who attended a public kindergarten school from a low rural income area. Kids were assessed with 11 tasks: Phonological awareness, Letter-sound correspondences, Differences between letters, Words from pictures, Reading words in context, Recognition of writing and reading activities, Early reading and writing performance, Technical vocabulary knowledge, proper usage of books was tested. The results of this study provides empirical information on the early literacy pattern of learning process of Spanish-speaking children as well as differences in knowledge and skills involved in this process between children from different socioeconomic groups. Differences between the three groups were observed in technical vocabulary knowledge and phonological awareness tasks performance. There were no differences between socioeconomically groups in distinguishing letters and words from pictures, recognizing writing and reading activities and proper using of books. According to Nelson (2007), children have a similar performance in those activities based on basic cognitive skills and differ in the ones that involve adult's instruction. The similar performances of the groups tested seems to indicate that the knowledge involved in early literacy process is develop in a sequence characterized by an emerging knowledge about writing in the social environment. The fact that children did not grasp a complete competence in one knowledge before reaching it in other later ability shows that literacy acquisition is characterized by an overlapping development of different abilities and knowledge.

Dada la relevancia del desarrollo temprano de los conocimientos o habilidades considerados precursores de la alfabetización, resulta fundamental, para la elaboración de propuestas pedagógicas, identificar aquellos aspectos en los que es necesario focalizar dichas propuestas. En este sentido, el estudio que se informa abordó la incidencia del medio en las habilidades tempranas de lectura y escritura en tres grupos de niños de diferente procedencia socioeconómica (niveles socioeconómicos medio urbano, bajo urbano y bajo rural). Los niños respondieron a 11 pruebas que evalúan las siguientes variables precursoras de la alfabetización: Habilidades de procesamiento fonológico, Conocimiento de las correspondencias, Habilidades de discriminación visual de letras y palabras, Habilidad de lectura de palabras en contexto, Capacidad de reconocimiento de acciones de lectura y escritura, Formas tempranas de escritura, Conocimiento de lenguaje técnico y Manejo de libro. Los resultados obtenidos señalan que existen diferencias entre los grupos en las tareas implicadas en el reconocimiento de lenguaje técnico, en las de conciencia fonológica y en las formas de escritura. Sin embargo, no se hallaron diferencias entre los niños de los distintos sectores socioeconómicos evaluados en las tareas de discriminación, manejo de libro y reconocimiento de acciones de lectura y escritura. En concordancia con el modelo evolutivo de Nelson (2007), los grupos muestran un desempeño similar en conocimientos que responden a procesos perceptivos básicos y difieren en aquellos que la investigación ha demostrado que requieren de la intervención de un adulto alfabetizado.