ABSTRACT: Regolith characterization in its entirety is particularly difficult in gneissic regoliths due to the heterogeneity of their rock structure. Rare earth elements (REE) are a useful tool in helping understand the evolution of regoliths. This study relates the mineralogy and weathering indexes of three gneisses regoliths (P1-leucocratic, P2-mesocratic and P3-melanocratic gneisses) to the distribution of REE at depth. In soil, clay activity, iron and manganese oxides, CaO, SiO2, P2O5, TiO2, Fe2O3, and MgO showed high positive correlation with REE. The absolute content of REE was enriched in mafic minerals. At the interface between the soil and saprolite, the sum of absolute REE content was greater in soil than in saprolite in P1, while the opposite pattern was found in P2 and P3. The sums of absolute REE in the whole profiles did not overlap between P1, P2 and P3, and the absolute concentration of Gadolinium (Gd) differentiated the three gneisses in all and every horizon/layer of their regoliths without overlapping values. Normalized REE content was greater in the subsurface of P1 due to Eu content in plagioclase, and fractionation had less variation when estimated by Light REE / Heavy REE (LREE/HREE) than by La/Yb, since the variation in REE is great in gneisses (due to the segregation of minerals into bands), and had low levels of association with the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) and the Weathering Index of Parker (WIP).

Resumo O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar as modificações mineralógicas, morfológicas e composicionais resultantes do intemperismo de grãos de diabásio enterrados em solo sob diferentes usos da terra por até 378 dias. Amostras de diabásio cominuído foram colocadas em sacos de poliéster e enterradas em solo sob cultivo de milho, capim-elefante e floresta, tendo sido desenterradas e avaliadas após quatro períodos. As amostras do remineralizador (RM) foram analisadas por difratometria de raios X, análise química total, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, e teores de Al (Ald e Alo) e Fe (Fed e Feo) extraídos com soluções de ditionito-citrato-bicarbonato (DCB) e amônio oxalato (AAO). Os plagioclásios e os piroxênios intemperizaram mais rápido nos três tipos de uso da terra, e mostraram o mesmo padrão de ganhos e perdas no balanço de massa de elementos. A caracterização das formas de Fe e Al em DCB e AAO mostrou que a maior mudança destes elementos foi da fase litogênica e cristalina para a secundária e amorfa, em comparação aos seus teores totais. Os plagioclásios e os piroxênios foram os minerais mais alterados, e Fe e Al apresentam grande transferência entre a fase cristalina e amorfa, com valores de até 26 e 175, respectivamente, para as razões entre sacos com RM/Feo e RM-controle e sacos com RM/Alo e RM-controle.

Abstract The objective of this work was to analyze the mineralogical, morphological, and compositional modifications resulting from the weathering of diabase grains buried into soil under different land uses for up to 378 days. Samples of comminuted diabase were put into polyester bags and buried into soil under corn crop, elephant grass, and woods, being unburied and evaluated after four time periods. The samples of the remineralizer (RM) were analyzed by X-ray diffractometry, total chemical analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and Al (Ald and Alo) and Fe (Fed and Feo) contents extracted by sodium dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate (DCB) and ammonium oxalate (AAO) solutions. Plagioclases and pyroxenes were the most weathered minerals in all three land uses and showed the same pattern of elemental gains and losses. The characterization of Fe and Al solubility in DCB and AAO showed that the greatest change in these elements was from the lithogenic and crystalline to the pedogenic and amorphous phase, when compared with their total content. Plagioclases and pyroxenes were the most weathered minerals, and Fe and Al show a great transfer from the crystalline to the amorphous phase, with values up to 26 and 175, respectively, for the ratios between bags with RM/Feo and RM-control and bags with RM/Alo and RM-control.

ABSTRACT Lithological and geomorphological variations determine formation of soils with different mineralogical constitutions and can influence the distribution of potentially toxic elements (PTE). The aim of this study was to determine the contents of PTE and mineralogical assemblages along soil profiles of different classes and parent materials and to investigate the association among these factors in the São Francisco sedimentary basin in the northern part of the state of Minas Gerais (Brazil). Eight soil pedons of different classes that developed from different parent materials (limestone, siltstone, phyllite, alluvial-colluvial sediments, detrital cover, and rhythmite) were studied in two lithotoposequences. Soil morphological, particle-size, and chemical analyses were carried out for soil characterization and classification. A mineralogical investigation was carried out by X-ray diffraction on soil sand, silt, and clay fractions. Potentially toxic elements were extracted by microwave-assisted acid digestion (EPA 3015A method) and determined in an ICP-OES. Soil mineralogy showed relevant interactions between pedogenesis and morphogenesis. Quartz is the main mineral in the sand and silt fractions, with varying amounts of weatherable primary minerals, whereas kaolinite is the main mineral in the clay fraction, followed by 2:1 clay minerals and oxides. The main soil properties associated with PTE variability were pH, redox environment, mineral and organic reactive surfaces, and clay content. The unique patterns of PTE distribution per pedon and differences in PTE contents in soils from the same parent material, but with different pedogenic evolution, showed that pedogenic processes influence PTE distribution. Mainly Mn, Ni, Pb, and Ba were influenced by parent material, especially limestone, siltstone, and detrital cover, but Cd, As, and Cu were also influenced. To a lesser extent, Mo was influenced by phyllite and Cr by detrital cover and phyllite. Rhodic Ferralsol (Latossolo Vermelho Distrófico típico) was the only taxonomic class to show class association with PTE. The association of Ferralsols (Latossolos) with Cd, Mn, Ni, Pb, Ba, As, and Cu and the low contents of these elements in soils of this class suggest that pedogenic processes common to Ferralsol (Latossolo) evolution are responsible for decreasing levels of these PTE.

Resumo O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar diferentes estratégias para a predição da distribuição de classes de solo em mapas pedológicos digitais de áreas sem dados de referência, na bacia sedimentar do São Francisco, no Norte de Minas Gerais. As estratégias incluíram: o detalhamento da legenda, o treinamento por observações em campo, a ampliação do conjunto de treinamento e o uso de diferentes algoritmos de mineração de dados. Foram elaboradas quatro matrizes, diferenciadas pelo volume de dados, para o aprendizado dos algoritmos, e pelo nível taxonômico das classes de solo a serem preditas. Avaliou-se o desempenho dos algoritmos de aprendizado de máquina - Random Forest, J48 e MLP -, associados a procedimentos de discretização, balanceamento de classes, seleção de variáveis e expansão do conjunto de treinamento. O balanceamento de classes, a discretização de variáveis por frequências iguais e o algoritmo Random Forest apresentaram os melhores desempenhos. A extensão da representatividade das observações em campo, que presume uma área de treinamento mais ampla, não trouxe ganho preditivo. A generalização taxonômica para subordem diminui a fragmentação dos polígonos mapeados e aumenta a acurácia dos mapas pedológicos digitais. Quando são produzidos após treinamento por observações de solo in situ, na área de mapeamento, os mapas pedológicos digitais têm valores de acurácia equivalentes aos dos treinados em mapas preexistentes.

Abstract The objective of this work was to evaluate different strategies for the prediction of soil class distribution on digital soil maps of areas without reference data, in the sedimentary basin of San Francisco, in the north of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The strategies included: taxonomic generalization, training by field observations, training set expansion, and the use of different data mining algorithms. Four matrices were developed, differentiated by the volume of data for machine learning and by soil taxonomic levels to be predicted. The performance of the machine learning algorithms - Random Forest, J48, and MLP -, associated with discretization, class balancing, variable selection, and expansion of the training set was evaluated. Class balancing, variable discretization by equal frequencies, and the Random Forest algorithm showed the best performances. The representativeness extension of field observations, that assumes a larger training area, brought no predictive gain. Soil taxonomic generalization to the suborder level reduces the fragmentation of mapped polygons and improves the accuracy of digital soil maps. When generated by training on in situ soil observations at the mapping area, digital soil maps are as accurate as those trained on preexistent maps.

ABSTRACT Information is scarce on the genesis and classification of soils derived from calcareous rocks in the Northeastern region of Brazil. This study describes the morphological, physical, chemical, mineralogical, and micromorphological properties of four soil profiles (P1-P4) located in the Apodi Plateau. A pedogenesis hypothesis and soil classification, according to the Brazilian System of Soil Classification (SiBCS), are proposed for these profiles. The interactions between parent material, surface topography and climate affected the pedogenesis processes and soil properties, although the calcareous nature of the parent material most affected the soil morphology and chemical properties. The sand fraction contained mainly quartz and calcite, and a smaller amount of mica. Smectite and interstratified illite-smectite occurred in the clay fraction of profile P1 and in some horizons of P2 (Ccmќ and Ccrќ) and P3 (2Ccrќ). Kaolinite predominated in profiles P2, P3, and P4; where as illite and vermiculite were present in the Bicќ, Bcќ, Bcmќ horizons of P2, in Bt2c of P3, and in C of P4. The mineralogy showed illite, hematite, and goethite, and anatase in a number of horizons. Micromorphological analysis of P2 indicated a strong cementation of Bcmќ and Ccmќ by calcium carbonate, and other properties indicate the formation of a petrocalcic horizon, but this horizon lacked lateral continuity in the profile. Therefore, the parapetrocalcic term is proposed for classifying P2 in the fourth level of the SiBCS. The 3Biќ-P1 horizon exhibited calcite coating and iron coating or quasi-coating, indicating distinct pedogenesis processes occurring under different environmental conditions. Likewise, the occurrence of petroplinthite in P2 indicates that climatic conditions during its formation differed from present conditions, and both situations are interpreted as evidence that the soils were formed by polygenetic processes. In the SiBCS classification, the soils are classified as Cambissolo Háplico Carbonático vertissólico (P1), Cambissolo Háplico Carbonático concrecionário (P2), Luvissolo Crômico Pálico petroplíntico (P3), and Neossolo Litólico Carbonatico típico (P4); and a new class (parapetrocálcico concrecionário) is proposed for P2 in the fourth level.

The effect of organic management can influence positively the edaphic properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the degree of organic carbon oxidation and the soil aggregation indexes in areas under organic management and different plant covers. The selected systems were: conventional tillage (corn - CT), no-tillage (eggplant - NT), passion fruit - Desmodium sp intercrops, fig cultivation, agroforestry system (AFS) and a secondary forest area. The soil samples were collected at 0-5 and 5-10 cm depths. The total organic carbon (TOC) was quantified and separated into four fractions (Fl, F2, F3 and F4) with decreasing degrees of oxidation, by the use of increasing quantities of sulfuric acid. Aggregate stability was determined by wet sieving, using the indices of mean weight diameter (MWD), geometric mean diameter (GMD) and sensitivity index (SI). The area under corn cultivation presented the lowest TOC concentrations and aggregation indices, in the two depths evaluated. The areas under eggplant and fig presented the highest TOC concentrations at the 0-5 cm depth, and the highest MWD at the 5-10 cm depth. There were SI values above 1 in the areas under fig and passion fruit. In general, the Fl fraction represented the largest proportion of TOC in all areas and in the two depths evaluated. The AFS presented the lowest proportions of TOC in the four fractions (0-5 cm). The area under eggplant (0-5 cm) presented the highest carbon concentrations in the Fl, F2 and F3 fractions. However, at the 5-10 cm depth, this behavior was observed in the area under corn, except for the Fl fraction. The results indicate that the management adopted in the area under corn did not favor soil aggregation and TOC. In the other areas, the SI determined indicates that the tillage practices associated to plant cover, in organic systems, preserved soil aggregation when compared to the forest area, at the 0-5 cm depth. The oxidizable carbon concentrations were influenced by the management systems adopted, with higher values in the areas where more plant residues were added to the soil.

La forma como se gestionan los recursos orgánicos aplicados al suelo puede influir las propiedades de éste. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el grado de oxidación del carbono orgánico y las tasas de agregación del suelo en sistemas con manejo orgánico y diferentes cultivos de cobertura. Los sistemas seleccionados fueron formas de cultivo y cubierta vegetal: labranza tradicional del suelo (maíz-CT), labranza cero (berenjena-NT), consorcio maracuyá -Desmodium sp, cultivo de higos, agroforestales (AFS) y bosque secundario. Se colectaron muestras de suelo a profundidades de 0-5 y 5-10 cm en todos ellos. Se cuantificó el carbono orgánico total (TOC) y se realizó su fraccionamiento, para separar el carbono en cuatro fracciones (Fl, F2, F3 y F4), con grados decrecientes de oxidación, mediante el uso de cantidades crecientes de ácido sulfúrico. Se determinó la estabilidad de agregados en húmedo mediante peso medio de diámetro (MWD), diámetro medio geométrico (GMD) y el índice de sensibilidad (SI). El área bajo cultivo de maíz mostraron menores niveles de TOC y el índice de agregación, en las dos profundidades estudiadas. Si bien los ámbitos de la berenjena y el higo mostraron niveles más altos en el TOC de 0-5 cm de profundidad, y MWD en la profundidad de 5-10 cm. Valores de SI más de 1 se encontraron en las áreas del higo y maracuyá. En general, la fracción Fl representados la mayoría de los TOC y en todos los ámbitos, tanto en las profundidades estudiadas. El SAF tiene la proporción más baja del COT en las cuatro fracciones (0-5 cm). El área de berenjena (0-5 cm) mostraron mayores niveles de carbono en las fracciones F1, F2 y F3. Sin embargo, la profundidad de 5-10 cm, este comportamiento se observó para el área de cultivo de maíz, excepto para la fracción Fl. Los resultados indican que la dirección adoptada en el área de maíz que está desfavoreciendo la agregación de los suelos y el TOC. Al igual que en otros ámbitos, el SI encuentrado muestra que la forma de cultivo, asociadas con el tipo de cubierta vegetal, en los sistemas orgánicos, son la preservación de la agregación del suelo, en comparación con el área de bosque, en la profundidad de 0-5 cm. Los niveles de carbono oxidables fueron influenciados por los sistemas de gestión adoptados, siendo mayor en las áreas que más contribuyen a la tierra los residuos de la planta.

O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar a influência do manejo agroecológico na distribuição dos agregados estáveis em água e no teor de carbono orgânico dos agregados em diferentes coberturas vegetais. Foram selecionadas cinco áreas, a saber: sistema agroflorestal; cultivo de figo (Ficus carica L.); consórcio maracujá (Passiflora edulis S.)-Desmodium sp.; cultivo de feijão (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), em manejo convencional, e cultivo de milho (Zea mays L. ), em plantio direto. Em cada área, foram coletadas amostras de terra indeformadas, nas profundidades de 0 - 5 e 5 - 10 cm, e avaliada a estabilidade dos agregados e o teor de carbono orgânico nos agregados (COAGR). A maior massa de agregados encontra-se na classe de 2,00 mm, em ambas as profundidades, com exceção do cultivo de feijão. Nas duas profundidades, a classe de 2,00 mm apresentou os maiores valores de COAGR para a área do consórcio macaracujá - Desmodium sp.

The objective of this study was to verify the influence of agroecological handling in the distribution of stable aggregates in water and in the levels of aggregate organic carbon under different vegetable covers. Five areas were selected: agroflorestal system; fig cultivation (Ficus carica L.); passion fruit (Passiflora edulis S.) and Desmodium sp. consortium; bean cultivation (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), under conventional system; and corn (Zea mays), in no-tillage system. In each area, undisturbed samples were collected, in 0-5 and 5-10 cm depths, and water aggregate distribution and organic carbon of aggregate (OCAGR) were quantified. The highest aggregate mass was observed in the 2.00 mm aggregate class, in both depths, except for the bean cultivation area. In both depths, the class with greater diameter showed the highest OCAGR values for the area of passion fruit - Desmodium sp. consortium.

O aporte de matéria orgânica ao solo via leguminosas em sistemas de aleias pode ser uma alternativa para o uso sustentável do trópico úmido. O objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar o aporte de matéria orgânica facilmente oxidável proveniente da combinação de resíduos de diferentes leguminosas utilizadas em sistemas de condução de culturas em aleias sob Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo. Foram avaliadas duas espécies de leguminosas de alta qualidade de resíduos - leucena (Leucaena leucocephala) e guandu (Cajanus cajan), e duas espécies de baixa qualidade de resíduos - sombreiro (Clitoria fairchildiana) e acácia (Acacia mangium), combinadas entre si, nos seguintes tratamentos: sombreiro + guandu; leucena + guandu; acácia + guandu; sombreiro + leucena; leucena + acácia e testemunha sem leguminosa. As amostras de solo foram coletadas nas profundidades de 0-5 e 5-10 cm, nas entrelinhas. Foi quantificado e fracionado o C orgânico total (COT), estratificado em quatro frações (F1, F2, F3 e F4) com graus decrescentes de oxidação. As áreas com sombreiro/leucena, acácia/leucena e acácia/guandu apresentaram os maiores teores de COT (0-5 cm), e a área testemunha, os menores (5-10 cm). A maior proporção do COT estava nas frações F1+F2; a área testemunha teve os menores teores de C nessas frações. O tratamento acácia/guandu apresentou maiores teores de C na fração F1 nas duas profundidades. O tratamento leucena/guandu apresentou as maiores proporções do COT nas frações F3 + F4. Os resultados indicam que, no cultivo em sistema de aleias, a combinação de leguminosas de alta e baixa qualidade de resíduos (acácia/guandu) favorece o aumento de matéria orgânica facilmente decomponível, enquanto o uso de leguminosas de alta qualidade de resíduos favorece maiores proporções de C somente nas frações mais resistentes (F3 + F4).

The input of organic matter to the soil by legumes in alley cropping systems may be an alternative for a sustainable soil use in the humid tropics. The objective of this study was to compare the input of oxidizable organic matter in a combination of residues from different legumes in alley cropping systems on an Ultisol. Two legume species were evaluated: leucena (Leucaena leucocephala) and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), which have high-quality residues, and Philippine pigeonwings (Clitoria fairchildiana) and acacia (Acacia mangium), with low-quality residues. The residues were combined in the following treatments: Philippine pigeonwings + pigeon pea; leucena + pigeon pea; acacia + pigeon pea; Philippine pigeonwings + leucena; leucena + acacia; an area without legumes was used as control. Soil samples were taken from the layers 0-5 and 5-10 cm in the crop inter-row. Total organic carbon (TOC) was quantified and divided into four fractions (F1, F2, F3 and F4) with decreasing oxidation degrees. In the areas with Philippine pigeonwings/leucena, acacia/leucena and acacia/pigeon pea the TOC content was higher at the depth of 0-5 cm. In the area without legumes the TOC content was the lowest at the depth of 5-10 cm. The highest TOC proportion was observed in the F1+F2 fractions, and the carbon contents for these fractions were lower in the area without legumes. In the acacia/pigeon pea treatment the C content was higher in the F1 fraction at both depths, while the TOC proportions were greater in the treatment leucaena/pigeon pea in the fractions F3 + F4. The results indicate that the combination of high and low quality residues (acacia/pigeon pea) favors the increase of easily decomposable organic matter, while the use of high-quality residues resulted in higher carbon proportions in the more resistant fractions (F3 + F4).