O meio rural brasileiro apresenta uma grande heterogeneidade, e parte de seus moradores convivem com altos índices de insegurança alimentar, especialmente entre os assalariados sem registro formal e famílias não ocupadas. No total, 1,4 milhão de famílias enfrentam insegurança alimentar moderada ou grave. Entre os desempregados no campo, 29% vivem nessa condição, enquanto 19% os assalariados agrícolas sem formalização nas relações de também sofrem com essa vulnerabilidade. Na agricultura familiar, 11% sofrem com privações alimentares. A precariedade do trabalho informal, a subocupação e o desemprego são fatores-chave que agravam a insegurança alimentar no campo. O desafio é criar políticas públicas direcionadas que atendam às necessidades específicas desses grupos vulneráveis.

The Brazilian rural environment exhibits significant heterogeneity, with many residents experiencing high levels of food insecurity, particularly among informal wage laborers and non-occupied families. In total, 1.4 million families face moderate to severe food insecurity. Among rural unemployed individuals, 29% live in such conditions, while 19% of informal agricultural wage laborers also suffer from this vulnerability. In family farming, 11% face food deprivation. The precariousness of informal work, underemployment, and unemployment are key factors exacerbating food insecurity in rural areas. Addressing these issues requires targeted public policies to meet the specific needs of these vulnerable groups.

Abstract: Global economic instability, digital disruption and saturated labor markets have led to underemployment among professionals. The objective is to know the trajectories and the labor identity of Chilean professionals who work in underemployment conditions. The qualitative methodology was obtained through in-depth interviews with 15 professionals. The data was processed by the Atlas ti 7 software and the hermeneutic type analysis was applied. The results show that a labor identity is configured not centered on the particular profession, but on “being professional” as a symbol of integration and social prestige. The labor identity as underemployed professionals accounts for a functional and pragmatic identity. Underemployment is assumed from a critical discourse at a social, economic and political level, but in practice it is overcome through individual strategies and costs.

Resumen: La inestabilidad económica mundial, la disrupción digital y los mercados laborales saturados han aumentado el subempleo entre los profesionales. El objetivo es conocer la identidad laboral de profesionales que trabajan en condición de subempleo. Se utilizó la metodología cualitativa y entrevistas en profundidad realizadas a 15 profesionales. Los datos se procesaron en el software Atlas ti 7 y se aplicó el análisis de tipo hermenéutico. Los resultados muestran una identidad laboral no centrada en la profesión, sino en el “ser profesional” como símbolo de integración y prestigio social. Es una identidad funcional y pragmática. El subempleo es asumido desde un discurso crítico a nivel social, económico y político, pero en la práctica se sobrelleva mediante estrategias y costos individuales.

Abstract: The laboral segregation concept analyzes the conditions in which women are involved in the world of work. Based on the feminist theory related with horizontal and vertical segregation, it was analyzed data in the National Survey of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment conducted by the National Institute of Statistics and Survey. As result, it was found horizontal segregation from feminized and masculinized branches, and vertical segregation due to major participation level of professional men in management and direction positions, and from professional women in administrative support level, which reveals the complex situation that women face in the Ecuadorian laboral market and that it has been impacted significantly by the covid-19 crisis.

Resumen: La segregación laboral analiza las condiciones de las mujeres en el mundo del trabajo. Con base en la teoría feminista sobre segregación horizontal y vertical, se analizaron datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo generada por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos, 2019 y 2020. Como resultado, se encontró segregación horizontal a partir de ramas feminizadas y masculinizadas, y segregación vertical debido al mayor nivel de participación de hombres profesionales en cargos de dirección y gerencia, y de las mujeres profesionales en el nivel de apoyo administrativo; se revela así la situación que enfrentan las mujeres dentro del mercado laboral ecuatoriano y que ha sido impactada de manera significativa por la crisis del covid-19.

Abstract: The aim of this work is to make a contribution on the characterization and understanding of the social structure of agricultural production in Paraguay and its historical evolution, focusing on the sectors that have been withdrawn or have seen their livelihood conditions deteriorate as a consequence of the recent productive transformations. In order to do this, the critique of political economy originally developed by Karl Marx is taken as a theoretical framework and aims to offer an explanation centered on the determination of social subjects by the place they occupy in the process of capital accumulation. In the last few decades, different works have shown the expansion of the working population’s surplus for the needs of capital accumulation in relation to the analysis of the recent transformations of the agrarian social sphere of other Latin American countries. In the case of Paraguay Paraguayan case, despite the impact that this phenomenon seems to assume, up to now, no studies that examine the social consequences of the deployment of recent agrarian transformations in this key have been published. Hence, the objective of this article is to present evidence of the expansive existence of a stagnant and consolidated relative overpopulation in the Paraguayan rural area between 2000 and 2020. To affirm this,according to official statistics and specialized studies on the subject, we will examine both the reduction or increase of the different types of agrarian productive units, such as data related to employment, unemployment, underemployment and/or other forms of precarious occupation that can conceal the supernumerary condition of a sector of the rural population. Similarly, we will analyze the growing dependence on alternative factors of employment to guarantee the reproduction of this sector of the population.

Resumen: El propósito del presente trabajo es realizar un aporte a la caracterización y comprensión de la estructura social de la producción agraria en Paraguay y su evolución histórica, haciendo foco en los sectores que han sido replegados o han visto deterioradas sus condiciones de sustento como consecuencia de las transformaciones productivas recientes. Para ello, se toma como base la crítica de la economía política desarrollada originalmente por Karl Marx y se apunta a ofrecer una explicación centrada en la determinación de los sujetos sociales por el lugar que ocupan en el proceso de acumulación de capital. En las últimas décadas, distintos trabajos han puesto de relieve, en el análisis de las transformaciones recientes de la esfera social agraria de otros países de América Latina, la expansión de población obrera excedentaria para las necesidades de acumulación del capital. En el caso paraguayo, pese a la contundencia que parece asumir este fenómeno, hasta el momento, no han surgido análisis que examinen las consecuencias sociales del despliegue de las transformaciones agrarias recientes en esta clave. En ese camino, el objetivo de este artículo es presentar evidencias de la existencia expansiva de una sobrepoblación relativa estancada y consolidada en el espacio rural paraguayo entre 2000 y 2020. Para ello, a partir de estadísticas oficiales y estudios especializados sobre el tema, examinaremos tanto la reducción o aumento de los distintos tipos de unidades productivas agrarias, como datos relacionados al empleo, desempleo, subempleo y/u otras formas de ocupación precaria que pueden encubrir la condición supernumeraria de un sector de la población rural. Asimismo, analizaremos la creciente dependencia de factores alternativos al empleo para garantizar la reproducción de este sector de la población.

Abstract The pandemic increased poverty worldwide. However, the mechanisms affecting its determinants still need to be clarified. This paper studies thisproblem using a probabilistic model of poverty extended with pandemic incidence variables and applying logistic regression on a household level. Forthe case of Ecuador, we use the December rounds of the 2019 and 2020 National Survey for Employment, Underemployment and Unemployment(ENEMDU), the administrative record of the Covid-19 epidemiological report, and the administrative record of deaths. The results show that thepandemic’s impact on poverty was through the gender gap and labor market structure.

Resumen La pandemia incrementó la pobreza a nivel mundial. Sin embargo, no se tiene claridad sobre los mecanismos de afectación en sus determinantes. En el presente artículo se estudia este problema utilizando un modelo probabilístico de la pobreza extendido con variables de incidencia de la pandemia, y aplicando una regresión logística a nivel de hogar. Para el caso de Ecuador se utiliza las rondas de diciembre de la Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Subempleo y Desempleo (ENEMDU) de 2019 y 2020, el registro administrativo del reporte epidemiológico de Covid-19 y el registro administrativo de defunciones. Los resultados muestran que los canales de impacto de la pandemia en pobreza se dieron a través de la brecha de género y la estructura del mercado laboral.

Abstract Youth pathways are significant for studying the reconfigurations that happen in the contemporary world, in its various social spheres. Youth is the social contingent most directly exposed to the dilemmas of our society, and nowadays unemployment rates among young people in the country are expressive. In addition to the barriers to entering and keeping a first job, the difficulties they face to remain in a decent and protected job are even greater. The data also show that informality is higher in this group when compared to the group of the adults. Regarding the condition of formal employment, the presence of young people in occupations with greater turnover and temporary entries is notorious. In this sense, aiming at unveiling the pathways of work built up by part of the Brazilian working youth, this study intends, by using singular paths and jointly triangulating with national databases, to analyze two forms of entry in the job market: the first job through the youth apprenticeship law and employment in the telemarketing sector. The young people pathways analyzed contributed to the flexible forms of employment being a gateway to the exercise of a paid activity. However, the great transformation that has occurred in recent years lies in the fact that both precarious jobs and new forms of underemployment – apprentices and telemarketing operators – assume less and less the form of a bridge leading to job stability. For many young people, this type of job stopped being a particular biographical event to become a way of life. world spheres society expressive adults notorious sense intends databases market sector activity However stability life

Resumo Os trânsitos juvenis são significativos para pesquisar as reconfigurações que tomam corpo no mundo contemporâneo, em suas diversas esferas sociais. A juventude é o contingente social mais diretamente exposto aos dilemas de nossa sociedade, e hoje são expressivas as taxas de desemprego entre os jovens no país. Além das barreiras para ingressar e se manter em um primeiro emprego, são ainda maiores as dificuldades encontradas para permanecer em um emprego digno e protegido. Os dados também evidenciam que a informalidade se apresenta mais elevada nesse grupo quando comparado ao grupo dos adultos. Já em condição de emprego formal, é notória a presença dos jovens em ocupações de maior rotatividade e inserções provisórias. Nesse sentido, com o objetivo de desvelar os percursos laborais construídos por parte da juventude trabalhadora brasileira, este trabalho pretende, por meio de singulares trajetórias e triangulando conjuntamente com bases de dados nacionais, analisar duas formas de inserção no trabalho: o primeiro emprego por meio da lei da aprendizagem e o emprego no setor de telemarketing. Os percursos juvenis analisados contribuíram para que as formas flexíveis de emprego constituam uma porta de acesso ao exercício de uma atividade remunerada. Todavia, a grande transformação que se verifica nos últimos anos reside no fato de que tanto os empregos precários como as novas formas de subemprego – aprendizes e os operadores de telemarketing – assumem cada vez menos uma ponte para a estabilidade empregatícia. Para muitos jovens, esse tipo de trabalho deixou de ser um acontecimento biográfico pontual, passando a um modo de vida. contemporâneo sociais sociedade país protegido adultos formal provisórias sentido brasileira pretende nacionais remunerada Todavia empregatícia pontual vida

Resumen Se presentan los resultados de una investigación sobre la experiencia laboral de egresadas y egresados de los programas de Técnico Superior Universitario (TSU) de la Universidad Iberoamericana Ciudad de México (Ibero). Estas experiencias se centran en las afectaciones que tuvo en su empleo y condiciones laborales el confinamiento social generado por la pandemia de Covid-19. Se trata de un recorte de una investigación cualitativa transversal más amplia que, mediante las evidencias recabadas por entrevistas y con la técnica fotovoz, explica -desde la sociología del trabajo- cómo cambiaron sus condiciones laborales y cómo han respondido a dichos cambios. El análisis de los resultados da cuenta de un incremento en el desempleo y subempleo, y de la necesidad de establecer condiciones de trabajo que salvaguarden la salud y la economía, situación que no es exclusiva de trabajadores con escolaridad de TSU; sin embargo, se identifica que, por la posición laboral y las actividades que asumen, son parte de la población más afectada. Asimismo, se vislumbra un futuro para los TSU con diferentes ocupaciones que exigirán nuevas habilidades, lo que obligará a las instituciones de educación técnica a anticipar y diseñar oferta formativa acorde con las nuevas necesidades de trabajo.

Abstract This paper presents the results of an investigation on the work experience of Higher Technical University graduates of the Universidad Iberoamericana, Mexico City (Ibero). These experiences focus on the effects social confinement generated by the Covid-19 pandemic had on their employment and working conditions. It is an extract of a broader cross-sectional qualitative research that explains, through the evidence collected by interviews and using the Photovoice technique -from the Sociology of Work-, how their working conditions changed and how they have responded to these changes. The results reveal an increase in unemployment and underemployment and the need to establish working conditions that safeguard health and economy, not exclusive to workers with technical degrees. However, it identifies that they belong to the most affected population because of their job position and activities. Likewise, it foresees a future for graduates with different occupations that will require new skills, which will force Technical Education Institutions to anticipate and design training according to upcoming job needs.

Resumo: Este artigo explora o impacto da pandemia de Covid-19 nas condições de trabalho das trabalhadoras migrantes que prestam cuidados a idosos e pessoas dependentes na Espanha. A partir de dados do Inquérito à População Ativa, analisamos os efeitos da crise sanitária na precarização deste setor laboral (medida por meio do desemprego, subemprego e emprego temporário). Os números lançam luz sobre a degradação das condições de trabalho durante a crise sanitária, a situação de vulnerabilidade social vivida pelas trabalhadoras e a ausência de respostas políticas efetivas para reverter essa desigualdade durante a pandemia. Essa situação de subordinação se estrutura em torno da conexão entre a demanda por cuidadoras em domicílios particulares e a filosofia por trás do sistema público de bem-estar. Ênfase especial é dada ao efeito dos programas de transferência de renda no processo de mercantilização do cuidado.

Abstract: This article explores the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the labour conditions of migrant workers who provide care to elderly and dependent persons in Spain. Using data from the Active Population Survey, we analyse the effects of the health crisis on the precariousness of this labour sector (measured through unemployment, underemployment and temporary employment). The figures shed light on the degradation of working conditions during the health crisis, the situation of social vulnerability experienced by female workers and the absence of effective policy responses to reverse this inequality during the pandemic. This situation of subordination is structured around the connection between the demand for care workers in private homes and the philosophy behind the public welfare system. Special emphasis is given to the effect of cash transfer programs in the process of the commodification of care.

ABSTRACT Introduction/framework/objectives It is not uncommon for a worker to report having Epilepsy during the Occupational Health exam, a fact that, in certain work contexts, may imply a risk of an eventual serious accident, sometimes arising some doubts on how to classify aptitude, maintaining confidentiality and simultaneously informing the employer/management/human resources which tasks should be avoided. Methodology This is a Bibliographic Review, initiated through a search carried out in January 2022 in the databases “CINALH plus with full text, Medline with full text, Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Methodology Register, Nursing and Allied Health Collection: comprehensive, MedicLatina and RCAAP”. Contents In Epilepsy, the existence of abnormal electrical activity in the brain is verified; it is a dysfunction of the central nervous system, episodic and unpredictable, although controllable in the majority. The epileptic seizure may lead to loss of consciousness and/or intense and involuntary muscle contraction. Some side effects of the drugs used can contribute to the abandonment of therapy or, at least, the omission of some doses. The unemployment and underemployment rate is higher in these individuals; not only because of the stigma associated with the crisis and risk of accident, but also because of the side effects of drugs, such as drowsiness, vertigo, headache and/or cognitive changes, which can reduce work performance. In addition, unemployment can be further exacerbated by a decrease in self-esteem, lower qualifications (in terms of qualifications and professional experience), not having a driver license and because there is little information about the disease (from colleagues and employer). Assessing an epileptic's ability to work is a complex task, especially when there are reasonably recent seizures. Aptitude will vary from case to case, considering the type of Epilepsy, frequency and intensity of seizures, control provided by medication and possible side effects, as well as work tasks themselves. Due to discrimination, some workers prefer to hide the pathology from the employer and the occupational physician. The determining factor for employability (access and maintenance of jobs) is crisis control. Discussion and Conclusions There are no consensually accepted Guidelines about Epileptic workers; in some countries and/or specific professional sectors there are short specific indications. It will be up to the Occupational Physician/Nurse and Safety Technician to act on a case-by-case basis, to guarantee the best working conditions. It seems to be consensual that at least two years without seizures may allow for the assumption that the recurrence rate will be reasonably low. In case of doubt, the Health and Safety elements may rely on the written opinion of the assistant neurologist, to have a technical and legal safeguard, in view of the aptitude classification and/or timing for reassessment.

RESUMO Introdução/enquadramento/objetivos Não é raro que durante o exame de Saúde Ocupacional o trabalhador refira ter epilepsia, facto esse que, em determinados contextos laborais, poderá implicar um risco de acidente eventualmente grave, surgindo, por vezes, algumas dúvidas em como classificar a aptidão, mantendo o sigilo médico e simultaneamente informando (empregador/chefia/recursos humanos) que tarefas deverão ser evitadas. Metodologia Trata-se de uma Revisão Bibliográfica, iniciada através de uma pesquisa realizada em janeiro de 2022, nas bases de dados “CINALH plus with full text, Medline with full text, Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Methodology Register, Nursing and Allied Health Collection: comprehensive, MedicLatina e RCAAP”. Conteúdo Na Epilepsia verifica-se a existência de atividade elétrica anormal a nível cerebral; trata-se de uma disfunção do sistema nervoso central, episódica e imprevisível, ainda que controlável na maioria dos casos. A crise epilética pode cursar com perda de consciência e/ou contração muscular intensa e involuntária. Alguns efeitos secundários dos fármacos utilizados podem contribuir para o abandono da terapêutica ou, pelo menos, omissão de algumas doses. A taxa de desemprego e subemprego é superior nestes indivíduos; não só pelo estigma associado à crise e risco de acidente, mas também devido aos efeitos secundários dos fármacos, como sonolência, vertigem, cefaleia e/ou alterações cognitivas, que podem diminuir o desempenho laboral. Para além disso, o desemprego pode ficar potenciado ainda com a diminuição da autoestima, menores qualificações (a nível de habilitações e experiência profissional), transporte dificultado por não ter carta de condução e por existir pouca informação acerca da doença (da parte de colegas e empregador). Avaliar a aptidão laboral de um epilético é uma tarefa complexa, sobretudo quando existem Convulsões razoavelmente recentes. A aptidão variará caso a caso, considerando o tipo de Epilepsia, frequência e intensidade das crises, controlo proporcionado pela medicação e eventuais efeitos secundários, bem como tarefas laborais em si. Em função da discriminação, alguns trabalhadores preferem ocultar a patologia ao empregador e até ao Médico do Trabalho. O fator determinante para a empregabilidade (acesso e manutenção do posto de trabalho) é o controlo das crises. Discussão e Conclusões Não existem guidelines consensualmente aceites, relativas a como atuar com trabalhadores epiléticos; em alguns países e/ou setores profissionais específicos existem indicações sumárias e pontuais. Caberá ao Médico/Enfermeiro do Trabalho e Técnico de Segurança atuar caso a caso, de forma a garantir as melhores condições de trabalho. Parece ser consensual que, à partida, pelo menos dois anos sem Convulsões poderão permitir supor que a taxa de recorrência será razoavelmente baixa. Em caso de dúvida, os elementos da Saúde e Segurança poderão se socorrer de parecer por escrito do neurologista assistente, de forma a existir uma salvaguarda técnica e legal, perante o parecer colocado na classificação de aptidão e/ou timing para reavaliação.

Resumen El uso de internet permite realizar ahora diferentes actividades que antes se realizaban personalmente, incrementando así la productividad y el crecimiento económico de los países. Sin embargo, es indispensable poseer conocimientos necesarios para asociar su uso con actividades productivas en la sociedad. El presente documento investiga cuál es la efectividad del uso de la internet en la búsqueda de empleo en el mercado laboral ecuatoriano. El diseño metodológico incorpora un modelo de elección discreta que involucra como variable de tratamiento el método de búsqueda de empleo y como variables de control las características socioeconómicas de los individuos, esto sobre la probabilidad de encontrar trabajo. La investigación emplea los microdatos de la Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU) recopilados por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos de Ecuador (INEC) en los años 2018 y 2019. Los principales resultados sugieren que la búsqueda de oportunidades laborales a través del internet incrementa la probabilidad de encontrar empleo en un 3%. Igualmente se encuentra que el género, los niveles educativos, edad, estrato y localización geográfica del trabajador impactan de manera significativa la probabilidad de encontrar empleo. JEL: J64; J68; M15; O15; O33

Abstract Now-a-days the use of the Internet allows for different activities that were previously performed in person, thus increasing the productivity and economic growth of countries. However, it is essential to have the necessary knowledge to associate its use with productive activities in society. This document investigates the effectiveness of the use of the Internet in the search for employment in the Ecuadorian labor market. The methodological design incorporates a discrete choice model that involves a treatment variable (job search method) and control variables (socioeconomic characteristics of individuals) to calculates the probability of finding work. The research uses microdata from the National Survey of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment (ENEMDU) collected by the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses of Ecuador (INEC) in the years 2018 and 2019. The main results suggest that the search for job opportunities through the internet increases the probability of finding employment by 3%. It is also found gender, educational levels, age, stratum and geographic location of the worker significantly impact the probability of finding employment. JEL: J64; J68; M15; O15; O33

Resumo O uso da internet agora permite diferentes atividades que antes eram realizadas pessoalmente, aumentando assim a produtividade e o crescimento econômico dos países. Entretanto, é essencial ter o conhecimento necessário para associar seu uso com atividades produtivas na sociedade. Este documento investiga a eficácia do uso da internet na busca de emprego no mercado de trabalho equatoriano. O projeto metodológico incorpora um modelo de escolha discreta que envolve como variável de tratamento o método de busca de emprego e como variáveis de controle as características socioeconômicas dos indivíduos, isto sobre a probabilidade de encontrar trabalho. A pesquisa utiliza microdados da Pesquisa Nacional de Emprego, Desemprego e Subemprego (ENEMDU) coletados pelo Instituto Nacional de Estatística e Censos do Equador (INEC) en 2018 e 2019. Os principais resultados sugerem que a busca de oportunidades de emprego através da internet aumenta em 3% a probabilidade de encontrar emprego. Verifica-se também que o sexo, os níveis de instrução, a idade, o estrato e a localização geográfica do trabalhador têm um impacto significativo na probabilidade de encontrar emprego. JEL: J64; J68; M15; O15; O33

Resumen Investigaciones previas han demostrado que el subempleo subjetivo está inversamente asociado a la satisfacción laboral, el bienestar psicológico y la salud. Hasta donde conocemos, este es el primer estudio que explora el subempleo subjetivo en egresados de pregrado en Colombia. Ciento cuarenta y dos trabajadores participaron en un estudio correlacional y comparativo. Los resultados replicaron hallazgos previos: a medida que aumentaba la percepción de subempleo subjetivo, disminuían la satisfacción laboral y la satisfacción con la vida en general. Se encontraron diferencias significativas en los indicadores de satisfacción laboral y satisfacción con la vida en general entre quienes perciben subempleo y quienes no. Por último, se discute el potencial ro del subempleo subjetivo en la salud de los empleados.

Abstract Previous research has shown that subjective underemployment is inversely associated to job satisfaction, psychological well-being and health. To our knowledge, the current is the first study that explores subjective underemployment in undergraduates in Colombia. One hundred and forty-two workers participated in a correlational, and comparative study. Results replicated previous findings: as subjective underemployment perception increased, job satisfaction and general life satisfaction decreased. Significant differences were found in the indicators of job satisfaction and general life satisfaction among those who perceive underemployment and those who do not. Finally, the potential role of subjective underemployment on employees' health is discussed.

Resumen Este artículo examina la relación entre el desempleo y la producción en el Perú entre 1970 y 2018 -denominada comúnmente como ley de Okun-, a partir de las dos primeras versiones planteadas originalmente por Arthur Okun. Asimismo, se plantea una nueva formulación econométrica que agrega al desempleo el subempleo como variable dependiente, buscando una aproximación a los elevados niveles de empleo precario característicos de economías en desarrollo, que sirven de vía de escape a la población y evitan mayores niveles de desempleo. Finalmente, a los modelos se incorporan variables adicionales al producto que permitan un mejor ajuste. Los resultados evidencian inferiores niveles del coeficiente en comparación con los estimados originalmente para la economía de Estados Unidos y de similares trabajos efectuados para las economías desarrolladas por diversos autores, lo que implica mayores niveles de producto para reducir el desempleo. Además, la reformulación agregada de desempleo con subempleo ayuda a explicar mejor las necesidades de crecimiento de la economía peruana. JEL Classification: C22, E24, E26, E32, J01.

Abstract This paper examines the relationship between unemployment and production in Peru between 1970 and 2018, commonly referred to as Okun's Law, based on the first two versions originally proposed by Arthur Okun. Likewise, a new econometric formulation is proposed, adding underemployment as a dependent variable to unemployment, seeking an approximation to the high levels of precarious employment characteristic of developing economies, which serve as an escape route for the population and avoid higher levels of unemployment. Finally, additional variables to the output are incorporated into the models to allow for a better adjustment. The results show lower levels of the coefficient, in reference to those originally estimated for the United States economy and similar studies carried out for developed economies by various authors, which implies higher levels of output to reduce unemployment. Furthermore, the aggregate reformulation of unemployment with underemployment helps to better explain the growth needs of the Peruvian economy.

Abstract The aim of this research is to study the wage gap between public and private sector employees in Ecuador. The methodology used is the Oaxaca and Blinder method (decomposition method). The necessary microdata is obtained from the National Survey of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment (ENEMDU) of the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC) for the years 2008, 2013 and 2018. The results obtained suggest the existence of a gap between public and private sectors, where public sector wages are relatively higher than those of the private sector. In addition, schooling and experience influence income levels positively, with the latter being the most determining factor. The decomposition of income gaps by sector shows that the wage gap responds to differences in human capital endowments and to discriminatory components of the labour force. The policy implications are aimed at reducing the public-private income gap.

Resumen El objetivo de esta investigación es examinar la brecha salarial entre empleados del sector público y privado en Ecuador. La metodología utilizada es el método de Oaxaca y Blinder (método de descomposición). Los micro datos se obtienen de la Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU) del Instituto Nacional de Estadísticos y Censos (INEC) de los años 2008, 2013 y 2018. Los resultados obtenidos, sugieren la existencia de una brecha entre el sector público y privado, donde los salarios del sector público son relativamente más altos a los del privado. Además, la escolaridad y la experiencia influyen positivamente en los niveles de ingresos, siendo esta última el factor más determinante. La descomposición de las brechas de ingreso por sector muestra que la brecha salarial responde a diferencias en las dotaciones de capital humano y a componentes discriminatorios de la fuerza laboral. Las implicaciones de política van dirigidas a disminuir la brecha de ingreso público-privada. Estas deben ser orientadas a mejorar los niveles de formación y profesionalización de los trabajadores y a generar escenarios para la igualdad de oportunidades.

Resumen Este ensayo científico analiza las posibilidades y condiciones de trabajo de las disciplinas de la educación básica, para reconocer el enfrascamiento e incertidumbres en los cuales se desenvuelven debido a los modelos de desarrollo capitalistas y su impacto en la estructura y el funcionamiento de los mercados laborales supeditados a criterios distorsionados de productividad y rendimiento de los mercados laborales. Para ello es importante analizar la contradicción entre las altas tasas de desempleo y subempleo en las disciplinas de la educación básica, el bajo promedio salarial con respecto a otras áreas de educación, los espacios de trabajo saturados con opciones poco compatibles con los perfiles profesionales, y los grados de satisfacción de las personas expertas en educación con datos del Observatorio Laboral Profesional (OLaP) de Conare y la encuesta trimestral de empleo. Para este análisis se consideró la desigualdad salarial, los contenidos y tareas de los trabajos disponibles que evidencian cómo se instrumentaliza la educación básica, su perfil vocacional y laboral. En consecuencia, este proceso mostró un desfase entre la formación universitaria en la educación básica y las exigencias profesionales moldeadas por la competitividad laboral, lo cual asienta las incertidumbres sociolaborales y educativas entre la adecuación de la carrera y las exigencias ─técnicas─ de los nuevos puestos de trabajo, lo cual demanda que se deban ejecutar, actualmente, ajustes vocacionales y laborales.

Abstract This essay, which has a scientific nature, analyzes the possibilities and work conditions available in Primary Education with the objective of recognizing bottlenecks and uncertainties characteristic of capitalist development models and their impact on the structure and function of labor markets, subject to distorted productivity criteria and labor market performance. This requires comparing the high rates of unemployment and underemployment in Primary Education, low average salaries with respect to other areas of Education, saturated work spaces with incompatible professional profiles, degree of satisfaction of educational experts based on data obtained from the National Council of Rectors (CONARE) Labor Market Observatory (OLaP) and the country´s Quarterly Employment Survey. The study examines pay gaps, job duties required for available jobs, vocational and professional profile. Disparities were revealed in Primary School Teacher Training at universities and actual job requirements and skillsets, as molded by the labor market, therefore, establishing socio-labor and educational uncertainties related to career adaptability juxtaposed with the skills required new jobs, reflecting a need for current vocational and labor adjustments.

Abstract The Ecuadorian labor market presents structural problems that have characterized it for several decades, and that undermine the achievements to improve the quality of life of the population. In the context of a high deterioration of employment and income indicators, this paper offers a picture of the labor market with which the country arrived before the pandemic, the same one that already presented important challenges to retake and improve the quality of life of the people. The document uses official figures published in the surveys of Employment, Unemployment and Underemployment (ENEMDU) of the National Institute of Statistics and Census of Ecuador (INEC) until December 2019. The main findings are a selection of seven stylized facts that highlight the challenges presented by changes in the demographic structure as well as the weaknesses in the generation of quality jobs and a high concentration of underemployment in the economy. Finally, it makes visible the persistence of unequal insertion of vulnerable groups in the labor market and highlights the importance of discussing labor legislation in a scenario that presents unequal access, high underemployment and sensitivity to the trajectory of the economic cycle.

Resumen El mercado laboral ecuatoriano presenta problemas estructurales que lo caracterizan desde hace varias décadas, y que vulneran los logros para mejorar la calidad de vida de la población. En el contexto de un alto deterioro de indicadores de empleo e ingresos, este trabajo ofrece una fotografía del mercado laboral con la que llegó el país antes de la pandemia, el mismo que ya presentaba desafíos importantes para retomar y mejorar la calidad de vida de las personas. El documento utiliza cifras oficiales publicadas en las encuestas de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU) del Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censo del Ecuador (INEC) hasta diciembre del año 2019. Los principales hallazgos agrupan la selección de siete hechos estilizados que ponen en evidencia los desafíos que presentan los cambios de la estructura demográfica, así como también, las debilidades en la generación de empleos de calidad y una alta concentración de subempleo en la economía; finalmente visibiliza la persistencia de una inserción desigual en el mercado laboral de grupos vulnerables y motiva la importancia de discutir sobre legislación laboral en un escenario que presenta un acceso inequitativo, alto subempleo y sensibilidad a la trayectoria del ciclo económico.