Resumen: (Introducción) La región montañosa del Pacífico Central de Costa Rica, actualmente conformada, en su mayoría, por los cantones de Turrubares, Puriscal y Mora, y, en menor extensión, por el suroeste de Acosta, fue una de las zonas más deforestada desde tiempos coloniales. (Objetivo) Analizar integralmente los factores históricos, socioeconómicos, geoclimáticos y ecológicos que posiblemente favorecieron la explotación maderera de los bosques de esa región. (Metodología) Se revisaron los documentos históricos, y los factores geoclimáticos, ecológicos y socioeconómicos de la región. Además, se realizó un censo entre profesionales e industriales de la madera para determinar las especies maderables eventualmente extraídas de los bosques, basado en composición florística de zonas de bosque protegidas de la región. (Resultados) La región montañosa fue sitio de paso y asentamiento de los colonos españoles desde el siglo XVI, lo que facilitó el desarrollo de caminos de acceso. Su cercanía al Valle Central, que necesitó productos forestales y agrícolas para la creciente zona urbana, unido a la existencia de una zona de convergencia ecológica extraordinariamente rica en árboles de importancia comercial, facilitó, en mucho, la extracción de productos forestales. (Conclusión) La colonización temprana de la región, la existencia de infraestructura, alta demanda de productos forestales en el ámbito nacional e internacional, y la disponibilidad de recursos forestales en una zona donde convergen el bosque seco tropical, el bosque nuboso y el bosque húmedo tropical, y las condiciones edafoclimáticas que facilitaron también el desarrollo de cultivos agrícolas, favorecieron posiblemente el cambio de uso del suelo y, por ende, la explotación forestal de la región.

Abstract (Introduction) The mountainous region of the Central Pacific of Costa Rica, currently made up mostly of the cantons of Turrubares, Puriscal and Mora, and to a lesser extent by the southwest of Acosta, was one of the most deforested areas since colonial times. (Objective) To comprehensively analyze the historical, socioeconomic, geo-climatic and ecological factors that possibly favored the logging exploitation of the forests of that region. (Methodology) The historical documents, and the geo-climatic, ecological and socioeconomic factors of the region were reviewed. In addition, a census was carried out among forestry professionals and industrialists to determine the timber species possibly extracted from the forests based on the floristic composition of protected forest areas in the region. (Results) The mountainous region was a transit and settlement site for Spanish colonists since the 16th century, which facilitated the development of access roads. Its proximity to the Central Valley, which needed forest and agricultural products for the growing urban area, together with the existence of an ecological convergence zone extraordinarily rich in trees of commercial importance, greatly facilitated the extraction of forest products. (Conclusion) The early colonization of the region, the existence of infrastructure, high demand for forest products at the national and international level, and the availability of forest resources in an area where the tropical dry forest, the cloud forest and the humid forest converge, and the edaphoclimatic conditions that also facilitated the development of agricultural crops, favored the change in land use and therefore the forestry exploitation of the region.

RESUMEN La definición de los árboles fuera del bosque (AFB) contempla a los productos forestales no madereros y constituyen un conjunto de bienes y servicios que tributan a la producción de alimentos en diferentes formas agrícolas. La investigación se realizó en la finca familiar Maripa, municipio de Cumanayagua, provincia Cienfuegos, Cuba, con el objetivo de analizar la evolución en el tiempo de los AFB en el área de ubicación de la finca. Se abordó un análisis diacrónico a través del método de los cortes sincrónicos, con un diseño de investigación transversal y enfoque descriptivo, donde se midieron aspectos cualitativos y cuantitativos sin manipular variables. El eje temporal elegido se concretó en tres cortes sucesivos, 1935-1965, 1966-1996 y 1997-2023, con una reconstrucción aproximada de las condiciones de aquellos elementos más significativos del paisaje. Se calcularon indicadores ecológicos, ajustados a los AFB presentes en la finca en el tercer corte. Resultó en el tiempo una dinámica de cambio del paisaje hacia un agroecosistema, con un 21,95 % de especies no presentes en la finca al cierre del primer semestre del año 2023 en relación con el período 1935-1965. En la actualidad se cuantificaron 64 especies pertenecientes a 33 familias botánicas, con mayor representación de: Fabaceae, Annonaceae, Anacardeaceae y Sapotaceae. Los índices ecológicos mostraron una alta diversidad y riqueza de especies, con baja dominancia.

ABSTRACT The definition of trees outside the forest (TOF) contemplates non-timber forest products and constitutes a set of goods and services that contribute to the production of food in different agricultural forms. The study was carried out on the Maripa family farm, municipality of Cumanayagua, Cienfuegos province, Cuba, with the objective of analyzing the evolution over time of the TOF in the farm's location area. A diachronic analysis was approached through the method of synchronic cuts, with a cross-sectional research design and descriptive approach, where qualitative and quantitative aspects were measured without manipulating variables. The chosen temporal axis was specified in three successive sections, 1935-1965, 1966-1996 and 1997-2023, with an approximate reconstruction of the conditions of those most significant elements of the landscape. Ecological indicators were calculated, adjusted to the TOF present on the farm in the third cut. Over time, a dynamic change of the landscape towards an agroecosystem resulted, with 21.95% of species not present on the farm at the end of the first half of the year 2023 in relation to the period 1935-1965. Currently, 64 species belonging to 33 botanical families were quantified, with the greatest representation of: Fabaceae, Annonaceae, Anacardeaceae and Sapotaceae. The ecological indices showed a high diversity and richness of species, with low dominance.

RESUMO A definição de árvores fora da floresta (AFB) inclui produtos florestais não madeireiros e constitui um conjunto de bens e serviços que contribuem para a produção de alimentos em diferentes formas agrícolas. A pesquisa foi realizada na fazenda da família Maripa, no município de Cumanayagua, província de Cienfuegos, Cuba, com o objetivo de analisar a evolução ao longo do tempo da AFB na área onde a fazenda está localizada. Foi realizada uma análise diacrônica usando o método de cortes sincrônicos, com um desenho de pesquisa transversal e abordagem descritiva, em que foram medidos aspectos qualitativos e quantitativos sem manipulação de variáveis. O eixo temporal escolhido consistiu em três seções sucessivas, 1935-1965, 1966-1996 e 1997-2023, com uma reconstrução aproximada das condições dos elementos mais significativos da paisagem. Foram calculados indicadores ecológicos, ajustados à AFB presente na fazenda na terceira seção. O resultado foi uma mudança dinâmica da paisagem ao longo do tempo em direção a um agroecossistema, com 21,95% das espécies não presentes na fazenda no final da primeira metade do ano de 2023 em relação ao período de 1935-1965. Atualmente, foram quantificadas 64 espécies pertencentes a 33 famílias botânicas, com maior representação de: Fabaceae, Annonaceae, Anacardeaceae e Sapotaceae. Os índices ecológicos mostraram uma alta diversidade e riqueza de espécies, com baixa dominância.

Abstract Vegetation structure patterns (VSP) are affected by the dynamic interaction between social and ecological elements. The objective was to describe the patterns of structure and diversity of the medium sub-evergreen forest after timber harvesting in Noh Bec, Quintana Roo, Mexico. The forest management areas were sampled simultaneously at three stages of tree development in 10×50-m rectangular sampling units (poles with ND [1.3 m]≥25 cm), and 10-m (saplings with ND≥5 to <25 cm) and 2-m square hierarchical units (seedlings with DN<5 cm). Diameter structure, Importance Value Index (IVI), and alpha diversity were calculated. Seventy species (29 families and 64 genera), 52 675 individuals ha-1 were recorded among the seedlings, 1 015 individuals ha-1, 9.51 m2 ha-1 of basal area (BA) and 112.60 m3 ha-1 of total tree volume (TTV) among saplings, and 95 individuals ha-1, 12.08 m2 ha-1 of BA and 145.41 m3 ha-1 of TTV among poles. The Sapotaceae family accounted for the largest proportion of the IVI. Pouteria reticulata was the most important species among the seedlings and saplings, while among the poles, it was Manilkara zapota. The diversity of the VSPs is evident, however, it is possible to distinguish them through specific indicators such as Fisher's alpha and structural dasometric values.

Resumen Los patrones de la estructura de la vegetación (PEV) son afectados por la interacción dinámica entre los elementos sociales y ecológicos. El objetivo fue describir los patrones de la estructura y diversidad de la selva mediana subperennifolia después del aprovechamiento forestal maderable en Noh Bec, Quintana Roo, México. Se llevó a cabo un muestreo en las zonas de gestión forestal de manera simultánea en tres estadios de desarrollo del arbolado en unidades de muestreo rectangulares 10×50 m (fustales con DN [1.3 m]≥25 cm,), unidades jerárquicas cuadradas de 10 m (latizales con DN≥5 a<25 cm) y de 2 m (brinzales con DN<5 cm). Se calculó la estructura diamétrica, Índice de Valor de Importancia (IVI) y la diversidad alfa. Se registraron 70 especies (29 familias y 64 géneros), 52 675 individuos ha-1 en los brinzales, 1 015 individuos ha-1, 9.51 m2 ha-1 de área basal (AB) y 112.60 m3 ha-1 de volumen total árbol (VTA) en latizales, y 95 individuos ha-1, 12.08 m2 ha-1 de AB y 145.41 m3 ha-1 de VTA en fustales. La familia Sapotaceae reunió la mayor proporción de los IVI. Pouteria reticulata fue la especie más importante en los brinzales y latizales, en tanto que en los fustales fue Manilkara zapota. La diversidad de los PEV es evidente, sin embargo, es posible distinguirlos a través de indicadores específicos como el alfa de Fisher y los valores dasométricos estructurales.

Abstract Ecological integrity (EI) is the property of an ecosystem to support and maintain a community of organisms whose composition, diversity, and functional organization is comparable to a natural habitat in the region. This concept is useful to know the degree of conservation of an ecosystem; therefore, it is of interest in forest management. The objective of this study was to develop and apply an Ecological Integrity Index (EII) in an area of temperate forest with timber harvesting. The site had four plant associations: three under timber harvesting (Pinus montezumae, P. patula, and P. pseudostrobus), and one corresponding to a conservation area (Pinus-Quercus). In order to calculate the index, the structure, composition, and function of the forest were evaluated through 20 markers, corresponding to three ecological attributes: landscape, vegetation, and soil. Four possible categories were established: excellent, good, fair and poor. The highest value of the EII was obtained in the conservation area, in the excellent category, while in the associations under harvesting, that of P. patula was rated excellent, and those of P. montezumae and P. pseudostrobus were rated good. In the area under harvesting, observation and minimal intervention are required to maintain and improve EI. The EII made it possible to characterize the associations under management, in addition to identifying the markers that require intervention or further research to maintain EI. This generated a baseline of knowledge of EI in the study area, which may be useful for its management.

Resumen La integridad ecológica (IE) es la propiedad de un ecosistema para soportar y mantener una comunidad de organismos cuya composición, diversidad y organización funcional sea comparable con un hábitat natural de la región. Este concepto es útil para conocer el grado de conservación de un ecosistema, por lo que es de interés en la gestión forestal. El objetivo fue desarrollar y aplicar un Índice de Integridad Ecológica (IIE) en una zona de bosque templado con aprovechamiento maderable. El lugar presentó cuatro asociaciones vegetales: tres bajo aprovechamiento maderable (Pinus montezumae, P. patula y P. pseudostrobus) y una correspondiente a un área de conservación (Pinus-Quercus). Para calcular el índice, se evaluó la estructura, composición y función del bosque a través de 20 indicadores, correspondientes a tres atributos ecológicos: paisaje, vegetación y suelo. Se establecieron cuatro categorías posibles: excelente, buena, regular y baja. El mayor valor del IIE se obtuvo en el área de conservación en la categoría excelente, mientras que en las asociaciones bajo aprovechamiento, la de P. patula se clasificó como excelente y las de P. montezumae y P. pseudostrobus se clasificaron como buenas. En el área bajo aprovechamiento se requiere observación e intervención mínima para mantener y mejorar la IE. El IIE permitió caracterizar las asociaciones bajo manejo, además de identificar los indicadores que requieren de intervención o mayor investigación para mantener la IE. Se generó así una línea base del conocimiento de la IE en el área de estudio, que puede ser útil para su gestión.

Resumo Usando dados de inventário, este estudo avaliou a composição de espécies, volume de estoque crescente (GSV) e carbono de biomassa (BMC) das cinco principais espécies madeireiras nas regiões subtropicais e temperadas/subalpinas do Paquistão. Constatou-se que a densidade do caule variou entre 50 e 221 árvores ha-1, com média de 142 árvores ha-1 (13,68 milhões de árvores para toda a área florestal). Entre as espécies, Pinus wallichiana apresentou alta composição de espécies (27,80%), seguida de Picea smithiana (24,64%). O GSV foi encontrado na faixa de 67,81 a 425,94 m3 ha-1, com um valor total de 20,68 milhões de m3 para toda a região. Da mesma forma, o BMC variou de 27,04 a 169,86 mg ha-1, com valor médio de 86,80 mg ha-1. A quantidade total de carbono armazenado foi de 8,69 milhões de toneladas para um total de 95.842 ha de floresta manejada comercialmente. Além disso, a análise de correlação entre área basal (BA), GSV e BMC mostrou que BA é o melhor preditor de GSV e BMC. As descobertas fornecem insights para os formuladores de políticas e gestores florestais sobre o manejo florestal comercial sustentável, bem como o manejo florestal de carbono no recente gerenciamento global de carbono para a mitigação das mudanças climáticas.

Abstract Using inventory data, this study evaluates the species composition, growing stock volume (GSV), and biomass carbon (BMC) of the five major timber species in the sub-tropical, and temperate/sub-alpine regions of Pakistan. It was found that the stem density varies between 50 and 221 trees ha -1, with a mean of 142 trees ha-1 (13.68 million trees for entire forest area). Among the species, Pinus wallichiana showed a high species composition (27.80%) followed by Picea smithiana (24.64%). The GSV was found in the range of 67.81 to 425.94 m3 ha-1, with a total GSV value of 20.68 million m3 for the entire region. Similarly, The BMC ranged from 27.04 to 169.86 Mg ha-1, with a mean BMC value of 86.80 Mg ha-1. The total amount of stored carbon was found at 8.69 million tons for a total of 95842 ha of commercially managed forest. Furthermore, the correlation analysis between the basal area (BA) and GSV and BMC showed that BA is the best predictor of GSV and BMC. The findings provide insights to the policy makers and forest managers regarding the sustainable commercial forest management as well as forest carbon management in the recent global carbon management for climate change mitigation.

Resumo Um estudo socioeconômico foi realizado no distrito de Mardan, da província de Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Paquistão, para obter maior conhecimento das espécies de árvores agroflorestais cultivadas em terras agrícolas, seu rendimento e estoque de carbono. Para a estimativa de produção e estoque de carbono, foram coletados os dados de 59 parcelas amostrais, medindo-se o diâmetro, a altura, o volume e a biomassa de espécies de árvores agroflorestais selecionadas por meio de fita D e altímetro Haga. Um total de 59 parcelas amostrais foi inventariado usando 2,5% de intensidade de amostragem. Cada parcela amostral possui uma área de 0,5 ha, em que cada árvore com Diâmetro à Altura do Peito (DAP) ≥ 5 cm foi inventariada. A quantidade calculada de volume de cada espécie de árvore foi então convertida em biomassa, multiplicando-a pela densidade da madeira e pelo Fator de Expansão da Biomassa (BEF). A produção total e o estoque de C para as espécies de árvores agroflorestais selecionadas foram 11.535,2 toneladas métricas e 2.102,2 toneladas métricas, respectivamente. Populus euroamericana foi classificada como a principal árvore com 28% de crescimento de estoque, seguida de Morus alba com 21%, enquanto Melia azedarach, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia nilotica, Salix tetrasperma e Bombax ceiba apresentaram 15%, 12%, 8%, 6%, 7% e 3% de crescimento do estoque, respectivamente. Entre as espécies encontradas em diferentes parcelas de amostragem, o rendimento de Populus euroamericana foi de 4.747,5 toneladas, seguida pela espécie Morus alba, com rendimento de 2.027,3 toneladas. Da mesma forma, o volume de Melia azedarach, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Salix spp, Bombax ceiba e Acacia nilotica foi de 1.532,2 toneladas, 1.503 toneladas, 745,7 toneladas, 555,4 toneladas e 220,5 toneladas, respectivamente. O estoque de carbono para Populus euroamericana foi calculado como 777,8 ton/ha, enquanto para Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Melia azedarach, Morus alba, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia nilotica, Salix species e Bombax ceiba foi calculado como 312,3 ton/ha, 272,1 ton/ha, 363 ton/ha, 245,1 ton/ha, 51,4 ton/ha, 27,3 ton/ha e 53,2 ton/ha, respectivamente. A pesquisa por questionário, realizada para a dinâmica de preços, mostrou que os entrevistados, em sua maioria, compram madeira do mercado para construção, mas usam árvores de fazenda em construções urbanas de baixa qualidade. Eles não gostam de utilizar a madeira local na construção convencional, pois ela é suscetível ao ataque de insetos. Em relação às vendas diárias, 50% dos comerciantes vendem entre Rs. 50.000-100.000, enquanto 16,7% têm suas vendas entre Rs.150.000-200.000. Portanto, conclui-se que tanto o governo provincial quanto o governo federal devem promover, por meio de diferentes incentivos, a agrossilvicultura no Paquistão, por ter o potencial de lidar com o dilema do desmatamento de florestas naturais e melhorar a subsistência das populações locais. É fortemente recomendado que projetos especiais, como o Projeto de Reflorestamento de Dez Bilhões de Árvores (T-BTTP), sejam lançados para plantio agroflorestal e promoção no país para sustentar a harmonia ecológica e elevar a condição socioeconômica dos povos do Paquistão.

Abstract A socio-economic study was conducted in district Mardan of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province of Pakistan to get a comprehensive knowledge of the agroforestry tree species grown on the farmlands, their yield, and carbon stock. For yield and carbon stock estimation, data were collected from 59 sample plots by measuring the diameter, height, volume, and biomass of selected agroforestry tree species through D-tape and Haga altimeter. A total of 59 sample plots were inventoried using 2.5 percent sampling intensity. Each sample plot has an area of 0.5 ha, where each tree with a Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) ≥ 5 cm was inventoried. The calculated amount of volume of each tree species was then converted to biomass by multiplying it by the density of wood and the Biomass Expansion Factor (BEF). Total yield and C stock for the selected agroforestry tree species were 11535.2 metric tons and 2102.2 metric tons, respectively. Populus euroamericana is classified as the main tree with 28% growing stock prior to Morus alba by 21%, while Melia azedarach, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia nilotica, Salix tetrasperma, and Bombax ceiba consist of 15%, 12%, 8%, 6%,7% and 3% growing stock respectively. Among the species found in different sampling plots the yield of Populus euroamericana was found to be 4747.5 metric tons and it was followed by the species Morus alba found at 2027.3 metric tons. Similarly, the volume for Melia azedarach, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Salix spp, Boombox ceiba, and Acacia nilotica was 1532.2 tons,1503 ton,745.7,203.5ton, 555.4ton and 220.5ton, respectively. The carbon stock for Populus euroamericana was calculated as 777.8 ton/ha, while for Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Melia azedarach, Morus alba, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia nilotica, Salix species, and Bombax ceiba it was calculated as 312.3ton/ha, 272.1ton/ha, 363ton/ha, 245.1ton/ha, 51.4ton/ha, 27.3ton/ha and 53.2ton/ha, respectively. The questionnaire survey conducted for price dynamics showed that the majority of respondents purchase timber from the market for construction. But they use farm trees with low-quality city construction. They dislike using local timber in the conventional building as timber from farm trees is liable to insect attack. Rs. 50,000-100000, (33.33%) of daily sales was concluded from 50% of the trader while (16.7%) of the traders have their sales between Rs.150,000-200,000. Therefore, it is concluded by the authors that both provincial and federal government should promote agroforestry in Pakistan through different incentives because it has the potential to cope with dilemma of deforestation of natural forests and improve the livelihood of local peoples. It is strongly recommended that special projects just like the Ten Billion Tree Afforestation Project (T-BTTP) should be launched for agroforestry plantation and promotion in the country to sustain the ecological harmony and uplift the socio-economic condition of the peoples of Pakistan.

Abstract: The proper choice of raw materials and manufacturing parameters for Cross Laminated Timber is essential to promote the proper bonding of the lamellas, aiming at their application in construction. However, few Brazilian species are currently used in the production of Cross Laminated Timber. The aim of this work was to characterize the bonding quality of four Brazilian reforestation species (Pinus elliottii (pino ellioti), Eucalyptus grandis (eucalipto), Toona ciliata (toona) and Acrocarpus fraxinifolius (lazcar)) in the manufacture of Cross Laminated Timber with two-component polyurethane adhesive and five different pressure levels (from 0,1 MPa to 1,3 MPa). Bonding quality was evaluated through delamination and glue line shear tests based on the European standard. Delamination was affected by the wood species, and the best adhesion occurred for the Cross Laminated Timber manufactured with Pinus elliottii (pino ellioti) and Acrocarpus fraxinifolius (lazcar) at the bonding pressure of 0,7 MPa. Cross Laminated Timber bonding pressure did not affect the percentage of wood in the shear test fractured surface, whereas higher density Cross Laminated Timber showed higher percentages.

Abstract Forest species are a source of timber and non-timber products. In addition to being important in obtaining botanical extracts, they contain in their tissues numerous secondary metabolites that have been recognized for their diversity and biological activity, considered as an alternative against fungi that cause rot and degradation in wood (xylophagous fungi), as well as fungi that cause diseases in agricultural crops. In this sense, it was proposed to study Eysenhardtia polystachya as a natural preservative source of wood due to its high resistance to stem rot. For this, extracts were obtained from leaf, sapwood, and heartwood with solvents of different polarities. Scrutiny and selection of the extracts with greater efficacy in Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Ganoderma lucidum were carried out; they were subjected to column chromatography. The content of phenols and flavonoids was determined. The leaf extracts showed selectivity regarding mycelial inhibition in P. chrysosporium, with greater sensitivity to the extracts than G. lucidum. The synergistic effect of the compounds present favors inhibition in P. chrysosporium. Therefore, E. polystachya presents chemical compounds that can preserve the wood and prolong its use time against attack by xylophagous fungi and generate control in phytopathogenic fungi.

Resumen Las especies forestales, son fuente de productos maderables y no maderables. Además de ser importante en la obtención de extractos botánicos, contienen en sus tejidos numerosos metabolitos secundarios a los que se les han reconocido por su diversidad y actividad bilógica. considerados como una alternativa contra hongos causantes de pudrición y degradación en la madera (hongos xilófagos), así como los hongos causantes de enfermedades en cultivos agrícolas. En este sentido, se propuso el estudio de Eysenhardtia polystachya como fuente preservante natural de madera debido a su alta resistencia a la pudrición de sus tallos. Para ello, se obtuvieron extractos con disolventes de diferentes polaridades a partir de hoja, albura y duramen. Se realizó un escrutinio y selección de los extractos con mayor eficacia en Phaneroquetes crysosporum y Ganoderma lucidium; se sometió a cromatografía en columna. Se determinó el contenido de fenoles y flavonoides. Los extractos de hoja presentaron selectividad en cuanto a su inhibición micelial en P. crysosporum con mayor sensibilidad a los extractos que G. lucidium. El efecto sinérgico de los compuestos presentes favorece la inhibición en P. crysosporum. Por lo que, E. polystachya presenta compuestos químicos que pueden preservar la madera y prolongar su tiempo de uso ante el ataque por hongos xilófagos, así como generar un control en hongos fitopatógenos.

Abstract Introduction: The great diversity of tropical timber species demands the development of new technologies capable of identifying them based on their patterns or anatomical characteristics. The application of convolutional neural networks (CNN) for the recognition of tropical timber species has increased in recent years due to the promising results of CNNs. Objective: To evaluate the quality of macroscopic images with three cutting tools to improve the visualization and distinction of anatomical features in the CNN model training. Methods: Samples were collected from 2020 to 2021 in areas of logging and sawmills in the Central Jungle, Peru. They were later sized and, after botanical and anatomical identification, cut in cross sections. A database of macroscopic images of the cross-section of wood was generated through cutting with three different tools and observing its performance in the laboratory, field, and checkpoint. Results: Using three cutting tools, we obtained high quality images of the cross section of wood; 3 750 macroscopic images were obtained with a portable microscope and correspond to 25 timber species. We found the ''Tramontina'' knife to be durable, however, it loses its edge easily and requires a sharpening tool, the ''Pretul'' retractable cutter is suitable for cutting soft and hard wood in small laboratory samples and finally the ''Ubermann'' knife is suitable for use in the field, laboratory, and checkpoint, because it has a durable sheath and interchangeable blades in case of dullness. Conclusion: The quality of the images is decisive in the classification of timber species, because it allows a better visualization and distinction of the anatomical characteristics in training with the EfficientNet B0 and Custom Vision convolutional neural network models, which was evidenced in the precision metrics.

Resumen Introducción: La gran diversidad de especies maderables tropicales demanda el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías de identificación con base en sus patrones o características anatómicas. La aplicación de redes neuronales convolucionales (CNN) para el reconocimiento de especies maderables tropicales se ha incrementado en los últimos años por sus resultados prometedores. Objetivo: Evaluamos la calidad de las imágenes macroscópicas con tres herramientas de corte para mejorar la visualización y distinción de las características anatómicas en el entrenamiento del modelo CNN. Métodos: Recolectamos las muestras entre el 2020 y 2021 en áreas de explotación forestal y aserraderos de Selva Central, Perú. Luego, las dimensionamos y, previo a la identificación botánica y anatómica, las cortamos en secciones transversales. Generamos una base de datos de imágenes macroscópicas de la sección transversal de la madera, a través del corte, con tres herramientas para ver su rendimiento en el laboratorio, campo y puesto de control. Resultados: Usamos tres herramientas de corte para obtener una alta calidad de imágenes transversales de la madera; obtuvimos 3 750 imágenes macroscópicas con un microscopio portátil que corresponden a 25 especies maderables. El cuchillo ''Tramontina'' es duradero, pero pierde el filo con facilidad y se necesita una herramienta para afilar, el cúter retráctil ''Pretul'' es adecuado para madera suave y dura en muestras pequeñas de laboratorio; el cuchillo ''Ubermann'' es apropiado para el campo, laboratorio y puesto de control, porque tiene una envoltura duradera y láminas intercambiables en caso de pérdida de filo. Conclusiones: La calidad de las imágenes es decisiva en la clasificación de especies maderables, porque permite una mejor visualización y distinción de las características anatómicas en el entrenamiento con los modelos de red neuronal convolucional EfficientNet B0 y Custom Vision, lo cual se evidenció en las métricas de precisión.

Abstract Quantifying the stocking of trees by means of allometric relationships within a stand favors better forest management, timber harvesting and helps to estimate losses due to illegal logging. The objective of this study was to represent in a quantitative way the allometric relationships between the variables of forest interest for Juniperus deppeana, a species of restricted use. Several allometric models were fitted with 1 096 pairs of data for stump (sd), normal (nd), and crown (cd) diameters, total height (Th), and volume (V) of trees of two growth conditions in natural forests of northern and western Tlaxcala State, Mexico. An average statistical improvement of 16.63 % in the explanation of sampling variability and a reduction of 18.53 % in bias were obtained by including the site as a random effect in the mixed-effects modeling approach. Validation of the estimates with data that are independent of the adjustment showed no significant differences. Consistently, the estimates of cd, Th, or V as a function of sd were conservative compared to when nd is used as an explanatory variable. Models n d = 2.5413 + 0.6778 × s d, R 2 =0.8187; c d = 0.4513 × n d 0.7733, R 2 =0.8195; T h = 1.3382 × n d 0.5039, R 2 =0.6281, and V = 0.0003 × n d 2.1005, R 2 =0.9563 proved to be reliable for reconstructing the mensuration characteristics of trees in stands affected by illegal logging activities, and for accurately quantifying the actual stock of this species' forests, they can be a reliable option for Juniperus deppeana forest management plans.

Resumen Cuantificar las existencias del arbolado por medio de las relaciones alométricas dentro de un rodal favorece una mejor gestión forestal, aprovechamiento maderable y ayuda a estimar las pérdidas por cortas clandestinas. El objetivo del presente estudio fue representar de manera cuantitativa las relaciones alométricas entre las variables de interés forestal para Juniperus deppeana, especie de aprovechamiento restringido. Se ajustaron distintos modelos alométricos con 1 096 pares de datos de los diámetros de tocón (dt), normal (dn) y de copa (dc), altura total (At) y volumen (V) de árboles de dos condiciones de crecimiento en bosques naturales del norte y poniente de Tlaxcala, México. Se obtuvo una mejora estadística promedio del 16.63 % en la explicación de la variabilidad muestral y una reducción de 18.53 % en el sesgo al incluir el sitio como efecto aleatorio en el enfoque de modelos de efectos mixtos. La validación de las estimaciones con datos independientes al ajuste no mostró diferencias significativas. De manera consistente, las estimaciones de dc, At o V en función del dt fueron conservadoras en comparación a cuando se utiliza como variable explicativa al dn. Los modelos d n = 2.5413 + 0.6778 × d t, R 2 =0.8187; d c = 0.4513 × d n 0.7733, R 2 =0.8195; A t = 1.3382 × d n 0.5039, R 2 =0.6281 y V = 0.0003 × d n 2.1005, R 2 =0.9563 evidenciaron ser confiables para reconstruir las características dasométricas del arbolado dentro de los rodales afectados por actividades de clandestinaje, y para cuantificar las existencias reales de los bosques de esta especie de forma precisa. Debido a lo anterior, pueden ser una alternativa confiable para la elaboración de planes de manejo forestal para Juniperus deppeana.

Abstract Synthetic fibres applied as reinforcement in glued laminated timber (glulam) intend to increase the mechanical performance of beams, changing the brittle to ductile mechanical behaviour of wooden beams. This paper investigates the experimental results of glulam beams reinforced with synthetic fibre subjected to bending and compares them with those obtained by both an analytical method and the numerical method using the Ansys® software. Glulam beams were produced with a low-grade strength class wood species (Pinus elliottii) glued with an adhesive of emulsion isocyanate polymeric and reinforced with Vectran® synthetic fibres, positioned on the bottom of the beam. This type of fibre is not yet widely used for structural reinforcement. A three-point bending test was performed for loading in the elastic regime of the glulam beams. The results obtained indicate acceptable approximations of vertical displacements and normal stresses due to the bending of the beam with eight layers of synthetic fabric, both favourable to structural safety, in addition to the significant increase in stiffness of glulam with the introduction of Vectran® fibre reinforcement.

Resumo O uso de fibras sintéticas como reforço em madeira lamelada colada (MLC) tem a finalidade de melhorar o desempenho mecânico de vigas, alterando o mecanismo de ruptura de frágil para dúctil. Este artigo tem por objetivo investigar resultados experimentais de flexão estática de vigas MLC reforçadas com fibras sintéticas e comparar com resultados obtidos tanto por método analítico quanto por numérico com o auxílio do software Ansys ® . As vigas de MLC foram produzidas com Pinus elliottii, uma espécie de madeira de baixa resistência, colada com adesivos de emulsão polimérica de isocianato (EPI) e reforçadas com tecido de fibras sintéticas de Vectran ® posicionado na face inferior da viga. Este tipo de fibra ainda não é largamente utilizado para reforço estrutural. Foi realizado ensaio de flexão a três pontos com carregamento no regime elástico das vigas de MLC. Os resultados obtidos mostram aproximações aceitáveis do deslocamento vertical e tensões normais devido à flexão da viga com reforço de oito camadas de tecido sintético, ambos a favor da segurança, além do expressivo aumento de rigidez da viga ao se introduzir o reforço de fibras de Vectran ® .

Resumen Los objetivos de esta investigación fueron: (a) Conocer la distribución de las especies de pino aserradas y estimar una distribución de clases de calidad visual de las trozas, (b) Determinar la frecuencia de rendimiento de aserrado y evaluar el efecto del diámetro menor con corteza y la conicidad de la troza en el mismo, y (c) Estimar el rendimiento volumétrico y la distribución de productos aserrados en el suroeste del estado de Chihuahua. Se integraron en el proceso de aserrado 182 trozas a las que se les identificó la especie, se evaluó su calidad, el rendimiento por categoría de diámetro menor y la conicidad con corteza. Se calculó el rendimiento volumétrico de los espesores, anchos, largos y calidad de madera aserrada obtenida de 1 348 trozas. Las variables se evaluaron con pruebas de normalidad, análisis de varianza y pruebas de correlación con la finalidad de identificar diferencias significativas (p<0.05). Se concluyó que Pinus arizonica es la principal especie que se transforma, al representar 45.70 % del total; la madera en rollo de calidad 5 es la más común con 27.67 % del total; el rendimiento de aserrado más frecuente es de 50.00 %; la categoría de diámetro y la conicidad de la troza son variables que definen el rendimiento de aserrado. Las principales dimensiones que se generan en el sureste del estado de Chihuahua son de 7/8” de espesor, 8” de ancho y 16´ de largo.

Abstract The objectives of this research were: (a) To learn the distribution of sawn pine species and to estimate a distribution of visual quality classes of the logs, (b) To find out the frequency of sawing yield and evaluate the effect of smallest diameter with bark and log taper on it, and (c) To estimate the volumetric yield and distribution of sawn products in the southwest of Chihuahua State. 182 logs were integrated in the sawing process, and the species, quality, yield by smallest diameter category and taper with bark were determined. The volumetric yield of thicknesses, widths, lengths, and quality of sawn timber obtained from 1 348 logs was evaluated. The variables were evaluated with normality tests, analyses of variance, and correlation tests in order to identify significant differences (p<0.05). Pinus arizonica was found to be the main species processed, representing 45.70 % of the total; quality 5 roundwood is the most common class, amounting to 27.67 % of the total; the most frequent sawing yield is 50.00 %; diameter category and log taper are variables that determine the sawing yield. The main dimensions generated in the southeastern state of Chihuahua are a thickness of 7/8", a width of 8", and a length of 16'.

Resumen Se estudiaron la flora útil y los usos de las plantas del área rural de Linares, Nuevo León. Se realizaron 180 encuestas semiestructuradas en seis ejidos. Se registraron 75 familias, 194 géneros y 253 especies con uso etnobotánico. Las principales categorías de uso fueron: ornamental (105 especies), medicinal (83), alimento (6) y maderable (25), las 34 especies restantes son utilizadas como forraje, cosméticos y creencias. Cactaceae (19), Fabaceae (15), Asteraceae (15), Poaceae (15), Lamiaceae (12), Solanaceae (6), Asparagaceae (6) y Rutaceae (4) registraron el mayor número de taxa. Del total de especies identificadas, 120 son nativas y 133 exóticas. Respecto al uso medicinal, Allium sativum, Aloe vera, Echinocereus poselgeri, Equisetum laevigatum, Croton suaveolens, Mentha spicata, Litsea glaucescens y Ruta graveolens resultaron las más utilizadas. Las principales especies maderables fueron: Prosopis glandulosa, Vachellia farnesiana, Ebenopsis ebano, Havardia pallens, Quercus canbyi, Carya illinoinensis, Pinus cembroides, P. montezumae y P. teocote. Para el Factor de Consenso del Informante (FCI) las medicinales se utilizan, principalmente, para curar males de los sistemas respiratorio, circulatorio, reproductivo y digestivo. Los taxa con los valores más altos del Índice de Valor de Uso (IVU) fueron Dysphania ambrosioides, Allium cepa y A. sativum, todas con valor=1. Respecto al Índice de Fidelidad (IF, %), los mayores porcentajes correspondieron a Artemisia ludoviciana, Cymbopogon citratus y Hedeoma drummondii. La región rural de Linares posee una rica flora útil que se utiliza principalmente como ornamental, medicinal, alimenticia, forrajera y maderable.

Abstract The useful flora and uses of plants in the rural area of Linares, Nuevo León were analyzed. A total of 180 semi-structured surveys were conducted in six ejidos. 75 families, 194 genera and 253 species with ethnobotanical use were recorded. The main categories of use were: ornamental (105 species), medicinal (83), food (6) and timber (25); the remaining 34 species are used as fodder, cosmetics and beliefs. Cactaceae (19), Fabaceae (15), Asteraceae (15), Poaceae (15), Lamiaceae (12), Solanaceae (6), Asparagaceae (6), and Rutaceae (4) recorded the highest number of taxa. Of the total number of identified species, 120 are native, and 133 are exotic. As for the medicinal use, Allium sativum, Aloe vera, Echinocereus poselgeri, Equisetum laevigatum, Croton suaveolens, Mentha spicata, Litsea glaucescens and Ruta graveolens were the most widely used. The main timber species were Prosopis glandulosa, Vachellia farnesiana, Ebenopsis ebano, Havardia pallens, Quercus canbyi, Carya illinoinensis, Pinus cembroides, P. montezumae, and P. teocote. For the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), medicinal plants are mainly used to cure ailments of the respiratory, circulatory, reproductive, and digestive systems. The taxa with the highest Use Value Index (UVI), equal to 1 in every case, were Dysphania ambrosioides, Allium cepa, and A. sativum. In regard to the Fidelity Index (FI, %), the highest percentages corresponded to Artemisia ludoviciana, Cymbopogon citratus, and Hedeoma drummondii. The Linares rural region has a rich useful flora, which is mainly used as ornamental, medicinal, food, forage and timber.

ABSTRACT The quality of wood from the species Cupressus lusitanica Mill. has been explored for the most diverse purposes in recent research, in view of the growth potential already reported for it in the literature, which makes it an option for diversifying the sources of supply of the timber industry in the southern region, currently dependent on few conifer species such as Pinus elliottii and Pinus taeda. This research aimed to evaluate the physical-mechanical properties of plywood panels made with Cupressus lusitanica wood veneers and its combination with P. taeda wood and to compare the results obtained with panels made only with P. taeda and also with the minimum requirements stipulated by the National Wood Quality Program for Pine plywood. Panels with 17 mm thickness, glued with phenolic resin in the weighing of 328 g/m², were evaluated regarding the physical properties of specific mass, moisture content, water absorption, thickness swelling and regarding the mechanical properties in parallel static bending and perpendicular. Thickness swelling did not differ between the evaluated treatments, although they did show differences in terms of water absorption and apparent specific mass at 12% moisture. For the parallel static bending test, the plywood made only from P. taeda wood showed greater stiffness, however an increase in resistance was observed in the combination of this wood with C. lusitanica. Regarding the perpendicular test, the combination of wood from P. taeda and C. lusitanica promoted mechanical properties equivalent to panels of traditional use (P. taeda). The use of the C. lusitanica species and its combination with the P. taeda species proved to be promising in terms of the evaluated physical properties and, in terms of mechanical properties, resulted in lighter panels and resistance equivalent to that registered for panels of P. taeda.

RESUMO A qualidade da madeira da espécie Cupressus lusitanica Mill. tem sido explorada para os mais diversos fins, tendo em vista o potencial de crescimento relatado na literatura, o que a torna uma opção para diversificação das fontes de abastecimento da indústria madeireira na região sul, atualmente dependente de poucas espécies de coníferas, como Pinus elliottii e Pinus taeda. Esta pesquisa objetivou avaliar as propriedades físico-mecânicas de painéis compensados confeccionados com lâminas da madeira de Cupressus lusitanica e combinação desta com a madeira de P. taeda e comparar os resultados obtidos com os painéis confeccionados somente com a madeira de P. taeda e com os requisitos mínimos estipulados pelo Programa Nacional de Qualidade da Madeira para compensado de Pinus. Foram avaliados painéis com 17 mm de espessura, colados com resina fenólica na gramatura de 328 g/m², quanto às propriedades físicas de massa específica, teor de umidade, absorção de água, inchamento em espessura e quanto às propriedades mecânicas em flexão estática paralela e perpendicular à grã. O inchamento em espessura não diferiu entre os tratamentos avaliados, embora tenham apresentado diferença quanto à absorção de água e massa específica aparente a 12% de umidade. Para o ensaio de flexão estática paralela, os compensados apenas da madeira de P. taeda apresentaram maior rigidez, no entanto um aumento da resistência foi observado na combinação desta com a madeira de C. lusitanica. Em relação ao ensaio perpendicular, a combinação da madeira de P. taeda e C. lusitanica promoveu propriedades mecânicas equivalentes aos painéis de uso tradicional (P. taeda). A utilização da espécie C. lusitanica e sua combinação com a espécie P. taeda mostrou-se promissora em relação às propriedades físicas avaliadas e no que se refere às propriedades mecânicas resultaram em painéis mais leves e de resistência equivalente à registrada para os painéis de P. taeda.

Resumen Los residuos maderables que brinda el bosque secundario por su alto contenido en material lignocelulósico son de gran interés para la industria de la construcción y otras con fines energéticos. El objetivo de esta investigación fue evaluar los residuos forestales de seis especies para la obtención del carbono como energía limpia, esto representa gran interés para la industria energética. A través de la metodología del estudio de inventarios y muestreo de los residuos maderables de los aserraderos de cuatro cantones de la provincia de Pastaza, mediante técnicas instrumentales de análisis físicos, químicos y térmicos, los parámetros estudiados fueron el potencial de biomasa y residuo, densidad, humedad, cenizas, volátiles, carbono fijo y poder calorífico superior (análisis inmediato), carbono, hidrogeno, oxigeno, nitrógeno y azufre (CHONS), lo que permitió obtener las propiedades termoquímicas, alcanzando los principales resultados del potencial energético, de estas tres especies que se pueden aprovechar para energía limpia, debido a la cantidad de cenizas encontradas en los análisis por debajo del 1 % y de volátiles (60-80 %) de estos residuos, lo que evidencia claramente que evita la formación de incrustaciones en los equipos y daños, en relación a su contenido en carbono fijo en promedio de 14.78 % y su poder calorífico superior 19.72 Mj/kg, valorando la factibilidad industrial para su aprovechamiento energético que generará 515.62 GW de energía limpia en térmicos eléctricos anualmente para satisfacer las necesidades de las áreas vulnerables de la región amazónica.

Abstract Timber residues due to its use for the construction industry and others provided by the secondary forest and its high content of lignocellulosic material for energy purposes, our objective was to evaluate the forest residues of six species to obtain carbon as clean energy, which represents great interest for the energy industry. Through the methodology of the study of inventories and sampling of wood residues from sawmills that was in the four cantons of the province of Pastaza, through instrumental techniques of physical, chemical and thermal analysis, the parameters studied were the biomass potential and residue, density, humidity, ashes, volatiles, fixed carbon and higher calorific value (immediate analysis), carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur (CHONS), which allowed obtaining the thermochemical properties, reaching the main results of energy potential, of these three species that can be used for clean energy, due to the amount of ash found in the analyzes below 1 % and volatiles (60-80 %) of these residues, which clearly shows that it prevents the formation of scale in equipment and damage, in relation to its fixed carbon content on average of 14.78 % and its superior calorific value 19.72 Mj/kg, assessing the fact industrial reliability for its energy use that will generate 515.62 GW of clean energy in electrical thermal power annually to meet the needs of vulnerable areas of the Amazon region.