Abstract Latin American and the Caribbean regions (LAC) harbor one of the most biodiverse areas of the world, the Neotropics. True bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) are a diverse lineage of insects, with more than 45,000 species, particularly speciose in the Neotropical region. True bugs are fundamental in the dynamics of natural and modified ecosystems, with several species critical to agriculture and public health. We compiled Heteroptera research in LAC from 1998–2022 using bibliographic databases. Productivity, collaborative networks, and the main topics studied were analyzed. A total of 1,651 Heteroptera studies from LAC were found, with continuous growth being 2021 the most prolific. Four categories (Taxonomy of extant species, Faunistic inventories and new records, Pest species biology, and Community ecology) represent most of the published research. About 60 percent of the records evaluated correspond to five families (Pentatomidae, Reduviidae, Coreidae, Miridae, and Rhyparochromidae). We emphasize the need to keep working on Heteroptera taxonomy because it will allow further advances in other areas such as phylogenetic analyses, biogeography, ecology, and natural history, among others. The results of our analyses characterize the current state of heteropterology in the region, establishing a baseline for future studies and efforts to broaden the knowledge of the group. (LAC world Neotropics Hemiptera (Hemiptera insects 45000 45 000 45,00 region ecosystems health 19982022 1998 2022 1998–202 databases Productivity networks analyzed 1651 1 651 1,65 found 202 prolific Taxonomy biology ecology 6 Pentatomidae, Pentatomidae (Pentatomidae Reduviidae Coreidae Miridae Rhyparochromidae. Rhyparochromidae . Rhyparochromidae) biogeography history others group 4500 4 00 45,0 1998202 199 1998–20 165 65 1,6 20 450 0 45, 199820 19 1998–2 16 1, 2 19982 1998–

Chagas disease (CD), caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a life-threatening neglected anthropozoonosis primarily transmitted by triatomine bugs. Affecting an estimated 5.7 million people globally, CD has significant morbidity and mortality, particularly in Latin America. The Oxente Chagas Bahia Project aims to screen approximately 30,000 individuals, validate a rapid diagnostic test in a real-world setting, and provide crucial data on its diagnostic performance and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, a biobank will be established to support further research on disease biomarkers and treatment cure rates. By enhancing access to timely diagnosis and treatment, the project will evaluate a strategy to reduce the CD burden. CD, , (CD) cruzi lifethreatening life threatening bugs 57 5 7 5. globally mortality America 30000 30 000 30,00 individuals realworld real world setting costeffectiveness. costeffectiveness cost effectiveness. effectiveness cost-effectiveness Additionally rates burden (CD 3000 3 00 30,0 300 0 30,

Resumo A doença de Chagas é um problema de saúde socioambiental presente em todo o mundo. Uma das vias de transmissão é através do contato com fezes de barbeiros infectados com o parasita Trypanosoma cruzi. Na Argentina existem programas de controle de vetores que previnem esta forma de transmissão. Especificamente, os responsáveis por este trabalho são os técnicos de campo, que praticamente são todos homens. Neste estudo, procuramos encontrar respostas sobre porque as mulheres não participam dessa área ocupacional no Programa Nacional de Chagas por meio de uma abordagem qualitativa e interpretativa que incluiu entrevistas, análise documental e observação. A maioria das pessoas entrevistadas justificou a falta de mulheres com base em estereótipos de gênero. Outro grupo indicou que é devido ao possível dano que os inseticidas lhes causariam. No entanto, não existem recomendações ou regulamentos oficiais que demonstrem que as mulheres não devem exercer este tipo de trabalho, pelo que concluímos que se trata de um ato discriminatório com base no gênero em relação a elas. Acreditamos que é necessário que as equipes de trabalho sejam diversificadas em termos de gênero, pois isso melhoraria as intervenções e estratégias de controle de vetores nos diferentes territórios. mundo cruzi Especificamente campo homens estudo entrevistas observação causariam entanto elas territórios

Abstract Chagas is a disease caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and a socio-environmental health problem present throughout the world. One of the routes of transmission of this parasite is through contact with feces of infected kissing bugs. In Argentina there are vector control programs that are responsible for preventing this route of transmission. Specifically, those who are in charge of this work are the field technicians, who are practically all men. Through a qualitative and interpretive approach that included interviews, documentary analysis and observation, we investigated why women do not participate in this occupational area in the National Program of Chagas. Most of the people interviewed justified the lack of women based on gender stereotypes. Another group indicated that it is due to the possible damage that insecticides would generate in women. We found that there is occupational segregation by gender towards women and other sex-gender identities, since there are no official recommendations or regulations which forbids women to perform in this type of job. We believe that it is necessary for the work teams to be diverse in terms of gender, since it would improve vector control interventions and strategies in the different territories. socioenvironmental socio environmental world bugs Specifically technicians men interviews observation stereotypes sexgender sex identities job territories

Resumen El Chagas es una enfermedad causada por el parásito Trypanosoma cruzi y una problemática de salud socioambiental presente en todo el mundo. Una de las vías de transmisión de este parásito es a través del contacto con heces de vinchucas infectadas. En Argentina existen programas de control vectorial que se encargan de prevenir esta vía de transmisión. Específicamente quienes realizan este trabajo son los técnicos de campo, que son prácticamente todos varones. Mediante un abordaje cualitativo e interpretativo que incluyó entrevistas, análisis documental y observación, indagamos por qué las mujeres no se desarrollan en esta área ocupacional dentro del Programa Nacional de Chagas. La mayoría de las personas entrevistadas justificaron la falta de contratación de mujeres basándose en estereotipos de género. Otro gran grupo indicó que se debe al posible daño que los insecticidas les generarían. Sin embargo, no existen recomendaciones ni reglamentaciones oficiales que demuestren que las mujeres no deban realizar este tipo de trabajo, por lo que concluimos que se trata de un acto discriminatorio por género hacia ellas. Consideramos que es necesario que los equipos de trabajo sean diversos en cuanto a género, ya que podrían mejorar las intervenciones y estrategias de control vectorial en los diferentes territorios. mundo infectadas campo varones entrevistas observación generarían embargo ellas territorios

The bed bug, Cimex lectularius Linnaeus, is a hemimetabolous insect of the family Cimicidae, Order Hemiptera and is a hematophagous ectoparasite of birds and mammals. Two species of this family are predominant: C. lectularius and C. hemipterus Fabricius. Bed bugs have long plagued humans in their living environment. Historically, bed bugs were noted throughout the ages. Before World War II infestations by bed bugs were very common, but after the war the prevalence of infection declined to a point where they were rare, and particularly since the 50s, when cases of infection decreased significantly due to the use of synthetic insecticides, especially dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). However, recently, the situation seems to have changed and experts in the field talk about a "resurgence" of the plague worldwide. Scientific researches and even newspapers' disclosures about bed bugs do nothing more than show that we are in the presence of a major health problem and that our country is no stranger to it. The following study was conducted in order to determine whether bed bugs are resurging in Argentina. The discovery of this urban pest in different cities of Argentina can now be confidently confirmed.

The New World Screwworm (NWS) continues being a veterinarian and human problem in South America and part of the Caribbean. In order to update this matter based on the research of the last six years, the wealth of existing information was reviewed, and some results of the authors of this paper were compared and discussed with those results found in this framework. Studies on the agent have been focused on its biology, epidemiology, zoonotic role, the control and insecticide resistance. In this subject, studies have been carried out on the differences in the wings of the agent and some related bugs as a good identification marker; the development of a key for the identification of the ectoparasite first stage larvae; obtaining of evidence about the migration of insect populations from north to south in the Americas at the end of the last glacial maximum and then in the transition between the Pleistocene and the Holocene; the assessment of economic losses caused by the insect, in billions of dollars ($ 0.34) in Brazil; the polymorphisms (intraspecific) shown by three different primers for samples from Mexico, Costa Rica, Panama, Jamaica, and Brazil; the use of two other primers (CR92A1 and J1A2) which allowed to discriminate successfully between Cochliomyia hominivorax and C. macellaria; the association between Rhipicephalus microplus y charge and the occurrence of screwworm myiasis by C. hominivorax, with a relative risk of screwworm in cattle with a high tick load of 3.85; new cases of human myiasis (in head, associated with Pediculus humanus capitis, maxillary, and in other anatomical locations) in different places of the areas where the agent abounds; evidences of ivermectin and abamectin ineffectiveness in preventing bull scrotal myiasis; the presence of E3 gene mutations associated with insecticide resistance, different types of diets and methods of genetic control.

El Gusano Barrenador del Ganado (GBG) continúa siendo un problema veterinario y humano en América del Sur y parte del Caribe. Con el objetivo de actualizar el tema, sobre la base de las investigaciones de los últimos seis años, se revisó el acervo informativo relacionado existente y se comparan y discuten algunos resultados de los autores de este artículo con lo encontrado en dicho marco. Los estudios sobre el agente han versado sobre su biología, epidemiología, papel zoonósico, el control y la resistencia a insecticidas. En el tema se han realizado estudios de las diferencias en las alas del agente y algunos insectos afines, como un buen marcador para la identificación; la elaboración de una clave para la identificación de las larvas del primer estadio del ectoparásito; la obtención de evidencias de que las poblaciones del insecto migraron de norte a sur en el continente americano, al final del último máximo glacial y, posteriormente, en la transición entre el Pleistoceno y el Holoceno; la valoración de las pérdidas económicas causadas por el insecto en miles de millones de dólares ($ 0.34) en Brasil; el estudio de tres cebadores diferentes que mostraron polimorfismos (intraespecífico) para muestras procedentes de México, Costa Rica, Panamá, Jamaica y Brasil; el uso de otros dos cebadores (CR92A1 y J1A2) que permitieron discriminar, con éxito, entre Cochliomyia hominivorax y C. macellaria; la asociación entre la carga de Rhipicephalus microplus y la ocurrencia de miasis por C. hominivorax, con un riesgo relativo de la enfermedad en el ganado con alta carga de garrapatas de 3,85; nuevos casos de miasis humana (en cabeza, asociado a Pediculus humanus capitis, maxilar y otras localizaciones) en diferentes lugares de las áreas donde abunda el agente; evidencia de la ineficacia de la ivermectina y abamectina en la prevención de la miasis escrotal en toros; la presencia de mutaciones del gen E3, en asociación con la resistencia a los insecticidas; diferentes tipos de dietas y métodos de control genético.

Basado en observaciones, en mediciones y en literatura acerca de las habilidades deportivas de los insectos, en los tres deportes reconocidos de los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano, el atletismo, la gimnasia y la natación, se comparan algunas marcas deportivas, recientemente establecidas por hombres y por mujeres con aquellos que, determinados insectos, sostienen desde hace millones de años. Estos artrópodos, si compitiesen con los humanos, ganarían en la mayoría de las justas, en las que, por sus características, podrían participar, ya sea a nivel mundial o en juegos olímpicos. En el levantamiento de pesas, en cualquiera de las modalidades, compiten los escarabajos peloteros y las hormigas con los insectos; ganarían los cucarrones, reconocidos también como los insectos sagrados de los antiguos egipcios. Disputa con ellos la medalla, el escarabajo hércules o rinoceronte, Dynastes hercules, cucarrón emblemático de las selvas tropicales de Suramérica, incluyendo a Colombia. Las chinches acuáticas de las familias Notonectidae y Corixidae son nadadores por excelencia de dos estilos, espalda y pecho y no es la pulga, que se pensaba sostenía el récord mundial de salto alto y largo, sino un insecto salivazo o mión (Cercopidae), plaga de alfalfa. Igualmente, y como ocurre casi siempre en los juegos olímpicos, donde alguien le quita el récord a un atleta, hace poco, otro insecto le quitó la marca de corredor más rápido a la cucaracha americana. Afortunadamente, los humanos no compiten en deportes con los insectos, pero sí luchan con algunos de ellos, con éxito limitado, principalmente, por alimentos.

Based on observations, measurements and literature on the sport abilities of insects within the three recognized categories of the Olympic Summer Games, athletics, gymnastics and swimming, some sporting marks, recently established by men and women, are compared with those, which specific insects sustain since millions of years. If these arthropods would compete with athletes , they would gain all competences, in which their characteristics would permit their participation, in both world and Olympic Game. In weight lifting, within any category, dung beetles and ants would compete, winning the gold medals the first group, to which the sacred dung beetles of the ancient Egyptians belong. They will be challenged by the rhinoceros beetle, Dynastes hercules, emblematic scarab of the South-American rainforests, including Colombia. The aquatic bugs of the families Notonectidae and Corixidae are swimmers by excellence of both styles, back and breast and, it is not the flea which sustains the world record of high and large jumps, but a spittlebug or froghopper (Cercopidae), an insect pest of alfalfa. Equally, and as it happens during the Olympic Games, where somebody takes a record away from an athlete, an other insect beats the score of the American cockroach as fastest runner. Fortunately, humans do not compete in games with insects, but do so, although with limited extent, with some of them for food.

O conhecimento de Pentatomoidea no Estado de São Paulo é aqui atualizado. São registradas 92 espécies em 89 gêneros pertencentes as famílias Acanthosomatidae, Canopidae, Cydnidae, Pentatomidae, Phloeidae, Scutelleridae, Tessaratomidae e Thyreocoridae. Comparando com os dados apresentados na primeira edição do Biota SP em 1999, foram adicionadas 41 espécies além de 13 correções nomenclaturais e taxonômicas efetuadas. O Estado de São Paulo apresenta uma riqueza total ao redor de 25% das espécies conhecidas para o Brasil e ao redor de 3% da fauna mundial de Pentatomoidea. Com o incremento dos estudos em famílias pouco conhecidas no país, estes números certamente serão ampliados. Pentatomidae resultou no táxon mais numeroso no estado, com 80% de espécies registradas.

Pentatomoidea knowledge in São Paulo state is here updated. Two hundred and two species in 92 genera belonging to Acanthosomatidae, Canopidae, Cydnidae, Pentatomidae, Phloeidae, Scutelleridae, Tessaratomidae and Thyreocoridae are registered. Forty one species were added and 13 taxonomical and nomenclatorial corrections were made comparing with the data presented in the first edition of the Biota SP in 1999. Pentatomoidea species richness of São Paulo state is around 25% of the species known to Brazil and around 3% of the world fauna. The increase of the studies in scarcely known families in Brazil will certainly raise these numbers. Pentatomidae was the most numerous taxon in São Paulo state, with 80% of the registered species.

Chagas disease, named after Carlos Chagas, who first described it in 1909, exists only on the American Continent. It is caused by a parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, which is transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs and via blood transfusion. Chagas disease has two successive phases: acute and chronic. The acute phase lasts six-eight weeks. Several years after entering the chronic phase, 20-35% of infected individuals, depending on the geographical area, will develop irreversible lesions of the autonomous nervous system in the heart, oesophagus and colon, and of the peripheral nervous system. Data on the prevalence and distribution of Chagas disease improved in quality during the 1980s as a result of the demographically representative cross-sectional studies in countries where accurate information was not previously available. A group of experts met in Brasilia in 1979 and devised standard protocols to carry out countrywide prevalence studies on human T. cruzi infection and triatomine house infestation. Thanks to a coordinated multi-country programme in the Southern Cone countries, the transmission of Chagas disease by vectors and via blood transfusion was interrupted in Uruguay in 1997, in Chile in 1999 and in Brazil in 2006; thus, the incidence of new infections by T. cruzi across the South American continent has decreased by 70%. Similar multi-country initiatives have been launched in the Andean countries and in Central America and rapid progress has been reported towards the goal of interrupting the transmission of Chagas disease, as requested by a 1998 Resolution of the World Health Assembly. The cost-benefit analysis of investment in the vector control programme in Brazil indicates that there are savings of US$17 in medical care and disabilities for each dollar spent on prevention, showing that the programme is a health investment with very high return. Many well-known research institutions in Latin America were key elements of a worldwide network of laboratories that carried out basic and applied research supporting the planning and evaluation of national Chagas disease control programmes. The present article reviews the current epidemiological trends for Chagas disease in Latin America and the future challenges in terms of epidemiology, surveillance and health policy.

Rhodnius ecuadoriensis is the second most important vector of Chagas Disease (CD) in Ecuador. The objective of this study was to describe (and compare) the life cycle, the feeding and defecation patterns under laboratory conditions of two populations of this specie [from the provinces of Manabí (Coastal region) and Loja (Andean region)]. Egg-to-adult (n = 57) development took an average of 189.9 ± 20 (Manabí) and 181.3 ± 6.4 days (Loja). Mortality rates were high among Lojan nymphs. Pre-feeding time (from contact with host to feeding initiation) ranged from 4 min 42 s [nymph I (NI)] to 8 min 30 s (male); feeding time ranged from 14 min 45 s (NI)-28 min 25 s (male) (Manabí) and from 15 min 25 s (NI)-28 min 57 s (nymph V) (Loja). The amount of blood ingested increased significantly with instar and was larger for Manabí specimens (p < 0.001). Defecation while feeding was observed in Manabí specimens from stage nymph III and in Lojan bugs from stage nymph IV. There was a gradual, age-related increase in the frequency of this behaviour in both populations. Our results suggest that R. ecuadoriensis has the bionomic traits of an efficient vector of Trypanosoma cruzi. Together with previous data on the capacity of this species to infest rural households, these results indicate that control of synanthropic R. ecuadoriensis populations in the coastal and Andean regions may have a significant impact for CD control in Ecuador and Northern Peru.

Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma rangeli-like trypanosomes have been found in a variety of neotropical bat species. In this study, bats (Artibeus lituratus, Carollia perspicillata, Desmodus rotundus, Glossophaga soricina, Molossus molossus, Phyllostomus hastatus) were maintained under controlled conditions, and experiments were conducted to determine how they might become infected naturally with trypanosomes. All bats were first screened for existing infections by hemoculture and the examination of blood smears, and only apparently uninfected animals were then used in the experiments. Proof was obtained that the triatomine bug Rhodnius prolixus would readily feed upon some of the bats, and two species became infected after being bitten by bugs infected with T. rangeli. Some bats also became infected by ingesting R. prolixus carrying T. cruzi, or following subcutaneous or intragastic inoculation with fecal suspensions of R. prolixus containing T. cruzi. P. hastatus became infected after ingesting mice carrying T. cruzi. All of the bats studied inhabit roosts that may be occupied by triatomine bugs and, with the exception of D. rotundus, all also feed to at least some extent upon insects. These findings provide further evidence of how bats may play significant roles in the epidemiology of T. cruzi and T. rangeli in the New World tropics.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of a single residual spraying of pyrethroids on the occurrence and abundance of Triatoma infestans in peridomestic ecotopes in rural La Rioja. METHODS: A total of 667 (32.8%) peridomestic sites positive for T. infestans in May 1999 were randomly assigned to treatment within each village, sprayed in December 1999, and reinspected in December 2000. Treatments included 2.5% suspension concentrate (SC) deltamethrin in water at 25 mg active ingredient (a.i.)/m² applied with: (a) manual compression sprayers (standard treatment) or (b) power sprayers; (c) 1.5% emulsifiable concentrate (EC) deltamethrin at 25 mg a.i./m²; and (d) 10% EC cis-permethrin at 170 mg a.i./m². EC pyrethroids were diluted in soybean oil and applied with power sprayers. All habitations were sprayed with the standard treatment. FINDINGS: The prevalence of T. infestans 1-year post-spraying was significantly lower in sites treated with SC deltamethrin applied with manual (24%) or power sprayers (31%) than in sites treated with EC deltamethrin (40%) or EC permethrin (53%). The relative odds of infestation and catch of T. infestans 1-year post-spraying significantly increased with the use of EC pyrethroids, the abundance of bugs per site before spraying, total surface, and host numbers. All insecticides had poor residual effects on wooden posts. CONCLUSION: Most of the infestations probably originated from triatomines that survived exposure to insecticides at each site. Despite the standard treatment proving to be the most effective, the current tactics and procedures fail to eliminate peridomestic populations of T. infestans in semiarid rural areas and need to be revised.

OBJETIVO: Comparar la efectividad de un único rociamiento de acción residual de piretroides contra la presencia y abundancia de Triatoma infestans en ecotopos peridomésticos en La Rioja rural. MÉTODOS: Un total de 667 (32,8%) sitios peridomésticos positivos para T. infestans en mayo de 1999 fueron asignados aleatoriamente a tratamiento dentro de cada aldea, rociados en diciembre de 1999, y reinspeccionados en diciembre de 2000. Las opciones de tratamiento fueron una suspensión concentrada (SC) de deltametrina al 2,5% en agua a razón de 25 mg ai/m² aplicada mediante: (a) pulverizadores manuales de compresión (tratamiento ordinario) o (b) pulverizadores eléctricos; (c) un concentrado emulsionable (CE) al 1,5% de deltametrina a 25 mg ai/m²; y (d) un CE al 10% de cis-permetrina a 170 mg ai/m². Los CE de piretroides se diluyeron en aceite de soja y se aplicaron con pulverizadores eléctricos. Todas las viviendas se rociaron aplicando el tratamiento ordinario. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de T. infestans al cabo de un año del rociamiento fue significativamente menor en los sitios tratados con SC de deltametrina aplicada con pulverizadores manuales (24%) o eléctricos (31%) que en los sitios tratados con CE de deltametrina (40%) o CE de permetrina (53%). Las posibilidades relativas de infestación y captura de T. infestans al cabo de un año del rociamiento aumentaban sensiblemente con el uso de CE de piretroides, la abundancia de insectos por sitio antes del rociamiento, la superficie total y el número de huéspedes. Todos los insecticidas tuvieron un escaso efecto residual en los postes de madera. CONCLUSIÓN: La mayoría de las infestaciones se debieron probablemente a triatominos que sobrevivieron a la exposición a los insecticidas en cada sitio. A pesar de que el tratamiento ordinario demostró ser el más eficaz, los procedimientos y tácticas actuales no logran eliminar las poblaciones peridomésticas de T. infestans en las zonas rurales semiáridas, y deberían por tanto ser revisados.

OBJECTIF: Comparer l'efficacité d'une pulvérisation rémanente unique de pyréthrinoïdes sur la présence et l'abondance de Triatoma infestans dans les écotopes péridomestiques du district rural de La Rioja. MÉTHODES: Un total de 667 sites péridomestiques (soit 32,8 %) où la présence de T. infestans avait été décelée en mai 1999 ont été tirés au sort dans chacun des villages pour être traités; la pulvérisation a eu lieu en décembre 1999, et ils ont été de nouveau inspectés en décembre 2000. Le traitement était le suivant : suspension concentrée à 2,5 % de deltaméthrine dans l'eau, épandue à la dose de 25 mg de substance active /m², appliquée au moyen : a) d'un pulvérisateur à pression préalable actionné manuellement (traitement classique) ou b) d'un pulvérisateur à moteur ; c) concentré émulsifiable à 1,5 % de deltaméthrine, épandu à la dose de 25 mg de substance active /m² ; d) concentré émulsifiable à 10 % de cis-perméthrine, épandu à la dose de 170 mg de substance active /m². Les concentrés émulsifiables de pyréthrinoïdes ont été dilués dans l'huile de soja et épandus au moyen de pulvérisateurs à moteur. Dans toutes les habitations l'épandage a été fait selon la méthode classique. RÉSULTATS: Un an après la pulvérisation, la fréquence de T. infestans était nettement plus faible dans les sites traités par la deltaméthrine en suspension concentrée appliquée manuellement (24 %) ou au moyen de pulvérisateurs à moteurs (31 %) que dans les sites traités par le concentré émulsifiable de deltaméthrine (40 %) ou de perméthrine (53 %). Un an après la pulvérisation, la probabilité relative d'infestation ou de capture de T. infestans était nettement augmentée par les facteurs suivants : utilisation d'une concentré émulsifiable de pyréthrinoïde, abondance des triatomes sur le site avant pulvérisation, surface totale et nombre d'hôtes. Tous les insecticides avaient peu d'effet rémanent sur les poteaux en bois. CONCLUSION: La plupart des infestations sont probablement dues à des triatomes qui ont survécu à l'exposition aux insecticides dans chacun des sites. Même si le traitement classique se révèle être le plus efficace, la stratégie et les méthodes actuelles ne parviennent pas à éliminer les populations péridomestiques de T. infestans en milieu rural semi-aride ; elles devront être révisées.

Chagas disease, named after Carlos Chagas who first described it in 1909, exists only on the American Continent. It is caused by a parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi, transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs and by blood transfusion. Chagas disease has two successive phases, acute and chronic. The acute phase lasts 6 to 8 weeks. After several years of starting the chronic phase, 20% to 35% of the infected individuals, depending on the geographical area will develop irreversible lesions of the autonomous nervous system in the heart, esophagus, colon and the peripheral nervous system. Data on the prevalence and distribution of Chagas disease improved in quality during the 1980's as a result of the demographically representative cross-sectional studies carried out in countries where accurate information was not available. A group of experts met in Brasília in 1979 and devised standard protocols to carry out countrywide prevalence studies on human T. cruzi infection and triatomine house infestation. Thanks to a coordinated multi-country program in the Southern Cone countries the transmission of Chagas disease by vectors and by blood transfusion has been interrupted in Uruguay in1997, in Chile in 1999, and in 8 of the 12 endemic states of Brazil in 2000 and so the incidence of new infections by T. cruzi in the whole continent has decreased by 70%. Similar control multi-country initiatives have been launched in the Andean countries and in Central America and rapid progress has been recorded to ensure the interruption of the transmission of Chagas disease by 2005 as requested by a Resolution of the World Health Assembly approved in 1998. The cost-benefit analysis of the investments of the vector control program in Brazil indicate that there are savings of US$17 in medical care and disabilities for each dollar spent on prevention, showing that the program is a health investment with good return. Since the inception in 1979 of the Steering Committee on Chagas Disease of the Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases of the World Health Organization (TDR), the objective was set to promote and finance research aimed at the development of new methods and tools to control this disease. The well known research institutions in Latin America were the key elements of a world wide network of laboratories that received - on a competitive basis - financial support for projects in line with the priorities established. It is presented the time line of the different milestones that were answering successively and logically the outstanding scientific questions identified by the Scientific Working Group in 1978 and that influenced the development and industrial production of practical solutions for diagnosis of the infection and disease control.