Abstract: The purpose of this article is to analyze the provisions and practices associated with funerals in New Spain during the last decades of the colonial era and to compare the parish fees of the archbishopric of Mexico and the bishopric of Guadalajara. Funeral services were of enormous consequence for the people of New Spain, both because of their significance in the community and because of the participation of the parish priest and his ministers. Two sources intersect here, the first being the taxes approved by the Church authorities of Mexico and Guadalajara, which established the amounts the faithful had to pay on the death of their relatives according to their status and the area where the bodies would be laid to rest. The second is the data from the records kept in the burial books of the parish of Jalostotitlán in the bishopric of Guadalajara to highlight the differences between the parochial rights in two bishoprics, and some of the changes that ocurred during the last years of the colonial period.

Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar las disposiciones y las prácticas relativas a los funerales en Nueva España durante las últimas décadas coloniales y comparar los aranceles parroquiales del arzobispado de México y el obispado de Guadalajara. Las honras fúnebres revestían especial importancia para los novohispanos, tanto por su significado en la comunidad, como por la participación del párroco y sus ministros. Aquí se cruzan dos fuentes: los aranceles aprobados por las autoridades eclesiásticas de México y Guadalajara, que establecían los montos que los fieles debían cubrir a la muerte de sus familiares según su calidad y el espacio donde reposarían los cuerpos, y los datos procedentes de las actas anotadas en los libros de entierros de la parroquia de Jalostotitlán del obispado de Guadalajara para mostrar las diferencias entre los derechos parroquiales de los dos obispados y algunos de los cambios que experimentaron las exequias a finales del periodo virreinal.

RESUMEN La industria del tabaco, como cualquier otra, es participe del producto interno bruto y la generación de empleo en cualquier país. No obstante, los gobiernos han establecido mecanismos fiscales para erradicar su consumo, debido a las enfermedades que ocasiona como cáncer pulmonar, bronquitis crónica; lo que puede llevar a la muerte. En este sentido, se propone una aplicación de un modelo de externalidades para la producción de tabaco en México. Se obtuvieron dos mecanismos para la erradicación del tabaco, uno de ellos implica que las empresas disminuyan salarios de los trabajadores por el aumento de impuestos; el segundo, aumentar precios del tabaco permitiendo que las empresas equilibren su presupuesto. Ambos mecanismos implican un desajuste presupuestal para los ciudadanos, pero el segundo es una solución socialmente optima, pues solo se ven afectados los consumidores de tabaco y no así los que dependen del empleo y salario de la empresa.

ABSTRACT The tobacco industry, like any other, is a participant in the gross domestic product and the generation of employment in any country. However, governments have established fiscal mechanisms to eradicate its consumption, due to the diseases it causes such as lung cancer, chronic bronchitis; what can lead to death. In this sense, an application of an externalities model for tobacco production in Mexico is proposed. Two mechanisms were obtained for the eradication of tobacco; one of them implies that companies reduce workers' wages due to the increase in taxes. A second is to increase tobacco prices allowing companies to balance their budget. Both mechanisms imply a budget imbalance for citizens, but the second is a socially optimal solution, since only tobacco users are affected and not those who depend on the company's employment and salary.

Resumen Si bien la literatura sugiere establecer reformas impositivas al tabaco más agresivas con el fin de reducir su asequibilidad y combatir la epidemia del tabaquismo, la industria tabacalera argumenta que dichas medidas afectarían a la economía del país. El objetivo del estudio es analizar la dimensión del sector tabacalero en México a través de variables clave sobre precios y marcas, así como cantidades consumidas y simular reformas al impuesto especial del tabaco. Un incremento de los impuestos al tabaco permite disminuir el consumo y aumentar la recaudación considerando elasticidades-precio del tabaco recientes. Se calculó la elasticidad al 2020 y el cambio en los precios considerando la reforma reciente de 2021 que actualizó por inflación el IEPS asi como dos reformas impositivas adicionales a los cigarros y sus marcas. Los resultados indican que un impuesto específico de un peso adicional y $1.50 pesos por cigarrillo reduciría el consumo en el rango del 21.7% al 27.7% e incrementaría la recaudación del 13.4% al 22.7%. Lo novedoso de este trabajo es que la mayor reducción en consumo se observa en las marcas de menor precio.

Abstract While literature suggests more aggressive cigarette tax reforms to reduce its affordability as well as the tobacco epidemic the tobacco industry argues that these measures, would affect the economy. The goal of this study is to analyze the size of the tobacco sector in Mexico through specific relevant variables on prices and brands and simulate different tobacco excise reforms. An increase in tobacco taxes would indeed decrease consumption and would increase revenues as well, when considering different and recent tobacco price elasticities. Elasticity was estimated for the year 2020 and changes on prices were computed by considering the most recent tobacco tax reforms in 2021 which updated the price according to rise on inflation and two additional reforms by using distinct cigarette brands. The results indicate that a specific tax of an additional peso and $1.50 pesos per cigarette would reduce consumption in the range from 21.7% to 27.7% and increase revenues from 13.4% to 22.7%. The novelty of this work is that the greatest reduction in consumption would be observed in lower-priced brands.

Abstract The article seeks to identify the neighborhood spaces occupied by indigenous people within Mexico City by the end of the colonial period. The central argument is that in the indigenous neighborhoods it was already possible to visualize constructive transformations in their ways of living, which would hypothetically be a sign of resilience and of agreements between merchants, brotherhoods, and convents to install solid, multifamily, and accessory buildings within a traditionally indigenous land, free of appraisals or taxes until at least 1812. The methodology used was to map the location of neighborhoods and their types of housing mainly from the information of property and tax registers, compared throughout different years: 1790, 1800, 1807, and 1813. The outcome was the differentiation between the indigenous neighborhoods, where those of the south-east stand out, with a greater attachment to traditional ways of life.

Resumen El artículo se propone identificar los espacios vecinales ocupados por indígenas dentro de la ciudad de México a fines del periodo colonial. El argumento central es que dentro de los barrios de indios ya era posible visualizar transformaciones constructivas en sus formas de habitar, lo que sería hipotéticamente un signo de resiliencia y de acuerdos entre comerciantes, cofradías y conventos de instalar construcciones sólidas, multifamiliares y accesorias dentro de un suelo tradicionalmente indio, libre de tasaciones o impuestos por lo menos hasta 1812. La metodología empleada fue mapear la localización de barrios y de sus tipos de vivienda principalmente a partir de la información de padrones de propietarios y de tributarios, comparados en diferentes años: 1790, 1800, 1807 y 1813. El resultado fue la diferenciación entre los barrios de indios, donde sobresalen los del sureste, con un mayor apego a formas tradicionales de vida.

ABSTRACT At present, it is observed that individuals significantly increase the value of their assets, in many cases, such increases have no justification, so they omit the payment of their taxes, generating a low tax collection in the country. The objective of this research work was to analyze the criteria that allow the detection of the unjustified increase in wealth of Peruvian individuals. The methodology applied was qualitative, phenomenological design, with a non-probabilistic sampling based on the professional experiences of three experts in tax matters. The result was that the tax administration applies certain criteria, classified under the following headings: financial system, social, informality, auditing and digitalization. The most important criteria during the COVID 19 pandemic were e-commerce and social networks, used to generate income and evade taxes. It is concluded that natural persons incur in unjustified asset growth, due to lack of knowledge, because they do not wish to formalize or because they do not have a technical accounting team to guide them in the aforementioned criteria. It is suggested that the tax administration should supervise the new criteria related to digitalization in order to reduce unjustified capital gains in Peru.

RESUMEN En la actualidad, se observa que las personas naturales incrementan significativamente el valor de su patrimonio, en muchos casos, dichos incrementos no tienen justificación alguna, por lo que omiten el pago de sus tributos, generando en el país una baja recaudación. El presente trabajo investigación tuvo como objetivo analizar los criterios que permiten la detección del incremento patrimonial no justificado en las personas naturales del Perú. La metodología aplicada fue de tipo cualitativo, diseño fenomenológico, tiene un muestreo no probabilístico basándose en las experiencias profesionales de tres expertos en materia tributaria. Obteniendo como resultado que la administración tributaria aplica ciertos criterios, clasificados en los siguientes rubros: sistema financiero, social, informalidad, fiscalización y digitalización. Siendo los criterios más resaltantes durante la pandemia COVID 19 el comercio electrónico y redes sociales, utilizados para generar ingresos y evadir impuestos. Se concluye que las personas naturales incurren en incremento patrimonial injustificado, por desconocimiento, porque no desean formalizarse o porque no cuentan con un equipo técnico contable que les oriente en los criterios antes mencionados. Se sugiere que la administración tributaria, deba fiscalizar a los nuevos criterios relacionados con la digitalización, para reducir el incremento patrimonial no justificado en el Perú.

Abstract This research analyzes the relationship between the economic and social dimensions that converge in the empowerment. The sample consist of sixteen businessmen and businesswomen owners of a MSMEs, of eight Mexican states, based on Gender and Development (GAD) theory. The context of the analysis is the economic crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The study involved semi-structured interviews, which were processed with Atlas Ti. The research applied an axial coding, linking the empowerment with the economic and social dimensions. It shows that the main motivation in the economic dimension of business owners is economic autonomy and the management of their time. At the beginning of the entrepreneurship, the main challenges were fear and lack of resources. Nowadays, the hardships they face are the pandemic effects, the payment of taxes, and insecurity. In the social dimension, business owners agree that family is a fundamental aspect of their life. The research concludes that social dimension divergence occurs in gender disparities like care of children and household activities done almost exclusively by women, which impacts their business activity (economic dimension). It is recommended to strengthen public policies focused on GAD and its multidimensional link to empowerment.

Resumen El objetivo de esta investigación es analizar las relaciones entre las dimensiones económicas y sociales que convergen en el empoderamiento, de una muestra de dieciséis empresarias y empresarios propietarios de una mipyme, pertenecientes a ocho entidades federativas de México, con base en la teoría del género en el desarrollo (GED). El contexto de estudio se ubica en los retos derivados de la crisis económica producida por la pandemia de COVID-19. Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas, analizándose mediante Atlas Ti. Se aplicó la codificación axial, para relacionar la categoría de empoderamiento con las dimensiones económicas y sociales. Los hallazgos demostraron que en la dimensión económica la principal motivación de las y los empresarios es la autonomía económica y el manejo del tiempo propio. Los principales retos al iniciar fueron el miedo y la falta de recursos. Actualmente, los desafíos que afrontan son los efectos de la pandemia, el pago de impuestos y la inseguridad. En la dimensión social, concuerdan que la familia es un pilar fundamental. Se concluye que la divergencia de la dimensión social se presenta en las disparidades de género, en el cuidado casi exclusivo de los hijos y las actividades del hogar por parte de las mujeres, lo cual impacta en su actividad empresarial (dimensión económica). Se recomienda fortalecer la implementación de políticas públicas desde el GED y su vínculo multidimensional en el empoderamiento.

Resumen El departamento de Ayacucho, Perú, se encuentra entre los departamentos con mayor cantidad de Mypes dedicadas a las artesanías. También es una región con elevadas unidades productivas y población económicamente activa informal, generando la evasión de impuestos por parte de las empresas y el constreñimiento de la economía local y nacional. El objetivo de este estudio es conocer los efectos tributarios de las Mypes artesanales. La metodología es cualitativa, descriptiva y explicativa, siguiendo la declaración PRISMA. Las bases de datos consultadas para la revisión fueron SciELO, Scopus, Google Scholar, Dialnet y Redalyc. Los resultados dieron 21 investigaciones, entre artículos científicos, revisiones y tesis. Se concluye que la tributación de impuestos no solo mejora la economía local y nacional, sino que las Mypes obtienen facilidades y oportunidades de crecimiento en el mercado internacional. Sin embargo, la evasión tributaria e informalidad están sujetas al desconocimiento de los empresarios sobre las ventajas de la formalización, la falta de distribución por parte del Estado peruano, los engorrosos trámites burocráticos que implican la formalización y la ilusoria perspectiva de que al evadir impuestos se genera mayor rentabilidad en la empresa.

Abstract The department of Ayacucho, Peru, is among the departments with the highest number of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) dedicated to handicrafts. It is also a region with high productive units and a significant portion of the economically active population being informal. This leads to tax evasion by companies and constrains both the local and national economy. The aim of this study is to understand the tax effects on artisanal SMEs. The methodology is qualitative, descriptive, and explanatory, and follows the PRISMA statement. The databases consulted for the review were SciELO, Scopus, Google Scholar, Dialnet, and Redalyc. The results yielded 21 investigations, including scientific articles, reviews, and theses. The study concludes that tax collection not only improves the local and national economy but also provides SMEs with facilities and opportunities for international market growth. However, tax evasion and informality are due to the entrepreneurs' lack of knowledge about the advantages of formalization, the lack of distribution by the Peruvian state, the cumbersome bureaucratic procedures involved in formalization, and the illusory perspective that evading taxes generates greater profitability in the company.

RESUMEN La promoción de la cultura tributaria mediante la educación y la tecnología es fundamental para fortalecer el cumplimiento fiscal en Ecuador. Este estudio cualitativo se propuso analizar estrategias educativas y tecnológicas que promuevan una mayor conciencia fiscal. Se utilizó un enfoque metodológico que incluyó revisión bibliográfica y análisis comparativo. Los resultados indican que los programas educativos deben ser accesibles y adaptados a diferentes públicos, desde estudiantes hasta funcionarios públicos. Se destacan iniciativas exitosas como concursos de redacción y programas multimedia. Las conclusiones resaltan la importancia de involucrar a la sociedad en general, así como a instituciones educativas y al Estado, en el desarrollo e implementación de estrategias educativas y tecnológicas efectivas. Estas estrategias pueden contribuir significativamente a mejorar la cultura tributaria y aumentar la recaudación fiscal, beneficiando así el desarrollo económico y social del país.

ABSTRACT The promotion of tax culture through education and technology is fundamental to strengthen tax compliance in Ecuador. This qualitative study set out to analyze educational and technological strategies that promote greater tax awareness. A methodological approach that included a literature review and comparative analysis was used. The results indicate that educational programs should be accessible and adapted to different audiences, from students to public officials. Successful initiatives such as writing contests and multimedia programs are highlighted. The conclusions highlight the importance of involving society in general, as well as educational institutions and the State, in the development and implementation of effective educational and technological strategies. These strategies can contribute significantly to improve the tax culture and increase tax collection, thus benefiting the economic and social development of the country.

Resumen: En esta investigación se analizó un conjunto de mensajes de recaudación para el pago de impuestos. En total, se evaluaron doce variaciones de los mensajes de cobro (normas sociales, simplificación, divulgación, compromiso previo, recordatorios y decisiones pasadas) y se determinó su efectividad. Los mensajes fueron transmitidos a microempresarios morosos en cuatro estados brasileños. A partir de una base de datos que contiene información sobre microempresarios morosos, se enviaron 250 000 mensajes de texto para hacer el cobro. Los datos se obtuvieron de la Secretaria Especial da Micro e Pequea Empresa (Sempe). Se utilizaron pruebas para analizar la diferencia entre medias y se utilizó una secuencia de regresión logística. Se utilizaron los widgets Random Forest, regresión logística y Naïve Bayes para definir la solidez del modelo predictivo de Machine Learning. Los resultados de la investigación indicaron que los formatos “simplificación”, “decisiones pasadas” y “alerta” no tuvieron ningún efecto en la lucha contra el incumplimiento. Sin embargo, al combinarlos con mensajes que aludan a normas sociales, los mensajes con el estilo de “decisiones pasadas” y “recordatorios” aumentaron el pago de la deuda. Los widgets empleados mostraron un ajuste excelente al modelo de machine learning. La herramienta Random Forest determinó que el modelo es robusto y adecuado para la función predictiva. Los resultados de la encuesta brindan un aporte a las políticas públicas, pues presentan una acción efectiva para reducir la morosidad tributaria. El uso de mensajes que apelan a las normas sociales puede adaptarse a otras situaciones, y se sugiere aplicarlo en futuras investigaciones.

Abstract: In this research, a group of charging messages for the payment of taxes was investigated. Altogether 12 variations of billing messages (social norms, simplification, disclosure, previous engagement, reminders and previous choices) were evaluated, and their effectiveness was tested. The messages were transmitted to defaulting microentrepreneurs in four Brazilian states. From a database containing information about defaulting micro entrepreneurs, 250 thousand text messages were sent making charges. The data were obtained from the Secretaria Especial da Micro e Pequena Empresa (Sempe). Tests were used to analyse the difference between means and Logistic Regression was used in sequence. The Random Forest, Logistic Regression and Naïve Bayes widgets were used to indicate the robustness of the Machine Learning predictive model. The research findings indicated that the formats “simplification”, “previous choices” and “alert”, employees, did not have an effect in combating default. However, when aligned with social norms, messages in the form of “past options” and “reminders” increase the payment of debts. The widgets used indicated an excellent fit to the machine learning model. The Random Forest tool attested with superiority that the model is robust and suitable for the predictive function. The results of the research provide a contribution to public policies when they present an effective action to reduce defaults in the payment of taxes. The use of messages in the social norm format can be adapted to other situations, constituting a suggestion for future research.

RESUMEN La economía popular y solidaria juega un papel económico significativo en la sociedad contemporánea. Es por esto que muchos de los actores que la conforman deben aprender cómo asumir su rol dentro de la fiscalidad. Este artículo se enfoca en la revisión de la literatura asociada con Contabilidad, Finanzas y Economía, para así, con una perspectiva sólida y especializada, analizar la relación cualitativa entre educación financiera y exoneraciones tributarias de estos actores. La revisión sobre las brechas de conocimiento, las estrategias para mejorar la educación tributaria y financiera, y el fortalecimiento del cumplimiento tributario, permitieron concluir que la educación financiera temprana, el desarrollo de plataformas tecnológicas y la promulgación de políticas públicas asociadas a los aspectos financieros y tributarios, son el camino a seguir para lograr una formación íntegra que abarque aspectos fiscales y mejore la relación de los actores de economía popular y solidaria con las exenciones fiscales.

ABSTRACT The popular and solidarity economy plays a significant economic role in contemporary society. This is why many of its actors must learn how to assume their role within taxation. This article focuses on the literature review associated with Accounting, Finance and Economics, in order to, with a solid and specialized perspective, analyze the qualitative relationship between these actors’ financial education and tax exemptions. The review of knowledge gaps, strategies to improve tax and financial education, and strengthening tax compliance, allowed to conclude that early financial education, technological platforms development and public policies promulgation associated with financial and financial aspects tax, conform the way to follow for achieving comprehensive training that covers fiscal aspects and improves the relationship of popular and solidarity economy actors with tax exemptions.

Abstract Fashion as a cultural expression involves a great amount of goods that circulate internationally. The designs, shapes, and utilities are the result of the creative work of people, interdisciplinary teams, researchers, and companies. The fruit obtained in this activity is protected by the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Intangible rights are an integral part of the value of goods and therefore have an impact on Customs Law since they are the basis of valuation for the purposes of applying taxes to foreign trade. The protection of copyright and the correct use of commercial and industrial trademarks has been presented as a control activity of the customs and in that mission the World Customs Organization made recommendations to optimize the control and thus prevent the flow of infringing goods. In Argentina, according to these parameters, a mechanism has been implemented to prohibit the circulation of goods in trademark fraud or pirated or unauthorized copies.

Resumen La moda como expresión cultural involucra a una gran cantidad de mercaderías que circulan internacionalmente. Los diseños, formas, utilidades son el fruto de un trabajo creativo de personas, equipos interdisciplinarios, investigadores, y de empresas. El fruto obtenido en esa actividad tiene tutela en virtud del Acuerdo de la OMC sobre los Aspectos de los Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual relacionados con el Comercio (ADPIC). Los derechos intangibles son una parte integrante del valor de las mercaderías y por tal motivo tiene impacto en el Derecho Aduanero ya que integran la base de valoración a los fines de la aplicación de los tributos al comercio exterior. La tutela de respetar los derechos de autor y el uso correcto de las marcas comerciales e industriales se ha presentado como una actividad de control propia de las aduanas y en esa misión la Organización Mundial de Aduanas realizó recomendaciones para optimizar el control y de esta manera impedir el flujo de mercaderías en infracción. En la Argentina conforme a estos parámetros ha implementado un mecanismo de prohibición de circulación de mercaderías en fraude marcario o copia pirata o no autorizada.

Resumo A moda, como expressão cultural, envolve uma grande quantidade de bens que circulam internacionalmente. Os desenhos, formas e utilidades são o resultado do trabalho criativo de pessoas, equipes interdisciplinares, pesquisadores e empresas. Os frutos obtidos desta atividade são protegidos pelo Acordo da OMC sobre Aspectos dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual Relacionados ao Comércio (TRIPS). Os direitos intangíveis são parte integrante do valor das mercadorias e, por esta razão, têm um impacto no Direito Aduaneiro, pois são a base da avaliação para fins de aplicação de impostos ao comércio exterior. A proteção dos direitos autorais e o uso correto das marcas comerciais e industriais foi apresentada como uma atividade de controle da alfândega e, nesta missão, a Organização Mundial das Alfândegas fez recomendações para otimizar o controle e assim evitar o fluxo de mercadorias infratoras. De acordo com estes parâmetros, a Argentina implementou um mecanismo para proibir a circulação de mercadorias em fraudes de marcas ou cópias piratas ou não autorizadas.

Abstract Evidence on the practice of higher prices on products and services for women, known as pink tax, is observed in several countries around the world. In Brazil, the existing literature on the subject is still extremely incipient, and focuses mainly on product prices. First, the article reviews the international and Brazilian literature on the subject of the pink tax. Next, we present our own research results. We investigated the existence of pink taxes in the laundry and beauty salon services in the five largest metropolitan regions of Brazil. The article also discusses the relationship between gender and economic space, the economic nature of the pink tax from the point of view of traditional economics, and women's consumption in the face of some stereotypes attributed to women in contemporaneity. world Brazil incipient First Next results space economics womens s contemporaneity

Resumo Evidências sobre a prática de preços mais elevados em produtos e serviços voltados ao público feminino, conhecida como pink tax, são observadas em diversos países no mundo. No Brasil, a literatura existente sobre o tema ainda é extremamente incipiente, além de focar sobretudo nos preços de produtos. Em primeiro lugar, o artigo faz uma revisão da literatura internacional e brasileira acerca do tema da pink tax. Na sequência, apresentamos os nossos próprios resultados de pesquisa. Investigamos a existência da pink tax nos serviços de lavanderia e salões de beleza das cinco maiores regiões metropolitanas do Brasil. O artigo também discute a relação entre gênero e espaço econômico, a natureza econômica da pink tax do ponto de vista da economia tradicional e o consumo feminino frente alguns estereótipos atribuídos às mulheres na contemporaneidade. mundo Brasil incipiente lugar sequência pesquisa econômico contemporaneidade

ABSTRACT In this study, optimization models for the production and logistics tactical planning of the corn supply chain are presented and several outputs are explored. They consider the domestic market for animal consumption, ethanol production, and the international market. They are mainly oriented to support policies and decisions of public agents who have some interference in the supply chain. To evaluate the consistency and effectiveness of the models, they were applied to solve realistic problem instances of the Brazilian corn supply chain considering different scenarios and using data collected from several sources. The outcomes demonstrated that models can produce analysis considering aspects that have not been fully addressed in the literature before, such as some opportunities to use different modes of transport for corn distribution, to contract extra capacity for stocking and the impacts of some state taxes on its production and logistic systems. Other important aspects explored in the scenario analysis are the identification of capacity bottlenecks and investment opportunities. The conclusions and insights are converted into practical interpretations to support relevant supply chain decisions. study consumption sources before distribution systems

ABSTRACT: This study investigates the relation between the corporate bond market and the main debt financing alternatives available to firms in Brazil from 2004 to 2014. In this period, three main sources of debt financing were available: loans from commercial banks, loans from the National Development Bank, and the issuance of international bonds. We analyze the characteristics of each alternative, as well as their advantages and disadvantages in relation to corporate bond issuance, considering three main aspects: i) total cost, which includes the interest rate, taxes and fixed costs; ii) maturity; and iii) contracting speed. The results corroborate the initial hypothesis that, although the alternative debt sources competed with corporate bonds, there was also a complementary relation among them. ABSTRACT 200 2014 period banks Bank bonds aspects i cost rate costs ii maturity iii speed that them 20 201 2

RESUMO: Este artigo tem como objetivo investigar a relação entre o mercado de debêntures e as principais alternativas de financiamento via dívida disponíveis para as empresas no Brasil de 2004 a 2014. Nesse período, três principais fontes alternativas de dívida estavam disponíveis: empréstimos de bancos comerciais, empréstimos do BNDES e emissão de títulos no mercado internacional. Analisamos as características de cada uma dessas alternativas, bem como suas vantagens e desvantagens em relação a uma emissão de debêntures, considerando três aspectos principais: i) custo total, que inclui taxa de juros, impostos e custos fixos; ii) prazo; e iii) velocidade de contratação. Os resultados corroboram a hipótese inicial de que, embora as fontes de dívida alternativas concorressem com as debêntures, também havia uma relação de complementaridade entre elas. RESUMO 200 2014 período comerciais internacional i total juros fixos ii prazo iii contratação elas 20 201 2

Resumo Objetivo: O Uruguai possui uma política de controle do tabaco abrangente; duas décadas após a sua implementação, o tabagismo continua a ser um problema de saúde pública, a principal causa de morte evitável e um fator de risco para doenças crônicas. Sistematizamos as informações disponíveis sobre políticas, consumo, preços e impostos sobre o tabaco, com o objetivo de detectar grupos vulneráveis que devem ser considerados ao focar políticas, bem como identificar quais precisam ser aprofundadas. Materiais e métodos: Análise descritiva de pesquisas de consumo de drogas em domicílios e em estudantes do ensino médio, pesquisas domiciliares, pesquisas de despesas e receitas domiciliares e registros administrativos de consumo lícito. Estimativa de lacunas entre o consumo reportado e as vendas legais como uma aproximação ao contrabando. Resultados: Entre 2001 e 2021, os impostos reais aumentaram 123% e o preço real de um maço de cigarros aumentou 84%, correspondendo 65% do preço a impostos. O consumo entre os jovens caiu 72%, enquanto a idade em que começam a fumar aumentou, e o consumo entre os adultos caiu 33%. Os grupos que tiveram menores reduções do que a média são: mulheres, residentes de áreas rurais e aqueles de menor nível socioeconômico. A análise das lacunas mostra que a penetração do comércio ilícito diminuiu. Conclusões: Os impostos devem ser aumentados para alcançar a recomendação mínima da OMS de que pelo menos 75% do preço de um maço corresponda a impostos, enquanto os programas de tratamento do tabagismo e a implementação do protocolo para a eliminação do comércio ilícito devem ser fortalecidos e focados.

Resumen Objetivo: Uruguay tiene una política de control del tabaco integral; dos décadas después de iniciada, el tabaquismo sigue siendo un problema de salud pública, primera causa de muerte prevenible y un factor de riesgo de enfermedades crónicas. Sistematizamos la información disponible sobre políticas, consumo, precios e impuestos al tabaco, con el objetivo de detectar grupos vulnerables que deben ser considerados al focalizar políticas, así como identificar cuáles deben ser profundizadas. Materiales y métodos: Análisis descriptivo de encuestas de consumo de drogas en hogares y en estudiantes de enseñanza media, encuestas de hogares, encuestas gastos e ingresos de los hogares y de registros administrativos de consumo lícito. Estimación de brechas entre consumo reportado y ventas de origen legal como aproximación al contrabando. Resultados: Entre 2001 y 2021, los impuestos reales crecieron un 123% y el precio real de la cajilla de cigarrillos un 84%, correspondiendo el 65% del precio a impuestos. El consumo en jóvenes cayó un 72%, a la vez que ha aumentado la edad en la que empiezan a fumar, mientras que en los adultos cayó un 33%. Los grupos que han tenido menores reducciones que el promedio son: mujeres, habitantes del interior del país y los de menor nivel socioeconómico. El análisis de brechas muestra que la penetración del comercio ilícito ha disminuido. Conclusiones: Deben aumentarse los impuestos para alcanzar la recomendación mínima de la OMS de que al menos el 75% del precio de la cajilla corresponda a impuestos, a la vez que fortalecerse y focalizarse programas de tratamiento del tabaquismo y el cumplimiento del protocolo para la eliminación del comercio ilícito.

Summary Objective: Uruguay has a comprehensive tobacco control policy; two decades after its implementation, smoking continues to be a public health problem, the leading cause of preventable death, and a risk factor for chronic diseases. We systematized the available information on policies, consumption, prices, and tobacco taxes, with the aim of detecting vulnerable groups that should be considered when focusing policies, as well as identifying which ones need to be deepened. Materials and methods: Descriptive analysis of drug consumption surveys in households and middle school students, household surveys, household income and expenditure surveys, and administrative records of legal consumption. Estimation of gaps between reported consumption and legal sales as an approximation to smuggling. Results: Between 2001 and 2021, real taxes increased by 123% and the real price of a pack of cigarettes by 84%, with 65% of the price corresponding to taxes. Youth consumption dropped by 72%, while the age at which they start smoking increased, and adult consumption dropped by 33%. The groups that have had smaller reductions than the average are women, residents of rural areas, and those of lower socioeconomic status. The gap analysis shows that the penetration of illicit trade has decreased. Conclusions: Taxes should be increased to reach the WHO’s minimum recommendation that at least 75% of the price of a pack corresponds to taxes, while tobacco treatment programs and the implementation of the protocol for the elimination of illicit trade should be strengthened and focused.