Resumo Este artigo de pesquisa examina a relação entre competência ortográfica e competência digital em estudantes do Ensino Secundário Obrigatório em contextos vulneráveis. Foi realizado um estudo de casos comparando duas escolas secundárias em áreas carentes de transformação social com duas escolas sem problemas de integração social. A amostra consistiu em 126 estudantes com idades entre 14 e 16 anos, selecionados de forma intencional. Os resultados indicam que não há diferenças significativas na relação entre ortografia acadêmica e o uso de textismos na comunicação digital em ambos os tipos de escolas. Conclui-se que a escrita digital não prejudica a ortografia acadêmica dos estudantes adolescentes, independentemente do ambiente em que vivem. No entanto, os alunos das escolas em áreas carentes de transformação social apresentam um uso diferenciado da norma digital: utilizam menos textismos léxicos, semânticos e multimodais, e cometem um número maior de erros ortográficos. Essas descobertas destacam a necessidade de abordar de forma diferenciada a competência ortográfica e digital no contexto educacional para os estudantes, dependendo do contexto em que vivem e estudam. vulneráveis 12 1 anos intencional Concluise Conclui se adolescentes entanto léxicos multimodais ortográficos estudam

Abstract This research article examines the relationship between spelling competence and digital competence in students of compulsory secondary education in vulnerable settings. A case study was conducted comparing two secondary education centres in areas in need of social transformation with two centres without social integration problems. The sample consisted of 126 students aged 14 to 16 years, intentionally selected. The results indicate that there are no significant differences in the relationship between academic spelling and the use of textisms in digital communication in both types of centres. It is concluded that digital writing does not harm the academic spelling of adolescents, regardless of their environment. However, students in centres in areas with social transformation needs exhibit a differentiated use of the digital norm: They use fewer lexical, semantic, and multimodal textisms and commit a greater number of spelling errors. These findings emphasise the need to address spelling and digital competence differently in the educational context for students, depending on the context in which they live and study. settings problems 12 1 years selected adolescents environment However norm lexical semantic errors

Resumen Este artículo de investigación examina la relación entre la competencia ortográfica y la competencia digital en estudiantes de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria en contextos vulnerables. Se realizó un estudio de casos comparando dos centros de educación secundaria en zonas con necesidad de transformación social con dos centros sin problemas de integración social. La muestra consistió en 126 estudiantes de edades entre 14 y 16 años, seleccionados de manera intencional. Los resultados indican que no hay diferencias significativas en la relación entre ortografía académica y el uso de textismos en la comunicación digital en ambos tipos de centros. Se concluye que la escritura digital no perjudica la ortografía académica de los estudiantes adolescentes, independientemente de su entorno. Sin embargo, el alumnado de centros en zonas con necesidades de transformación social presentan un uso diferenciado de la norma digital: utilizan menos textismos léxicos, semánticos y multimodales, y cometen un número mayor de faltas de ortografía. Estos hallazgos destacan la necesidad de abordar de manera diferenciada la competencia ortográfica y digital en el ámbito educativo para los estudiantes según en contexto en el que vivan y estudien. vulnerables 12 1 años intencional adolescentes entorno embargo léxicos multimodales estudien

RESUMO Este artigo analisa o problema que os estudantes de jornalismo têm de escrever, em relação às disciplinas que têm uma carga horária elevada para realizar trabalhos práticos de redação, a fim de aperfeiçoar os diferentes gêneros jornalísticos, tais como: a notícia, a reportagem, a entrevista, a crônica e o comentário. O artigo aborda o caso de estudantes do sétimo semestre da carreira de Jornalismo da Universidade Leiga "Vicente Rocafuerte" de Guayaquil, no período acadêmico 2019-2020. Foi aplicada uma metodologia de pesquisa mista, descritiva, explicativa e longitudinal que incluiu o levantamento e autoavaliação e testes de conhecimento sobre a aplicação de regras ortográficas, sinais de pontuação, semântica, entre outros aspectos fundamentais que um aluno deve saber para aplicar corretamente a técnica de redação jornalística. Os resultados mostraram que a maioria dos alunos registra deficiências na escrita devido à falta de domínio e conhecimento das regras ortográficas, problemas de sintaxe, coerência, clareza e precisão na elaboração de textos jornalísticos. Concluiu-se que existem problemas de forma e conteúdo com os quais os professores têm que lidar e devem encontrar estratégias de ensino para mitigar esse problema.

ABSTRACT This article analyzes the problem that journalism students have in writing, in relation to the subjects that have a high hourly load for the realization of practical writing assignments, in order to perfect the different journalistic genres, such as: news, reporting, interview, chronicle and commentary. The article addresses the case of seventh semester students of the Journalism career of the Universidad Laica "Vicente Rocafuerte" of Guayaquil, in the academic period 2019-2020. A research methodology of mixed, descriptive, explanatory and longitudinal approach was applied, which included the survey and self-evaluation and knowledge tests on the application of spelling rules, punctuation marks, semantics, among other fundamental aspects that a student must know to correctly apply the journalistic writing technique. The results showed that most of the students show deficiencies in writing due to the lack of mastery and knowledge of spelling rules, syntax problems, coherence, clarity and precision in the development of news texts. It was concluded that there are problems of form and content with which teachers have to deal and must find didactic strategies to mitigate this problem.

RESUMEN El presente artículo analiza el problema que tienen los estudiantes de periodismo para redactar, en relación con las asignaturas que tienen una alta carga horaria para la realización de trabajos prácticos de redacción, a fin de perfeccionar los distintos géneros periodísticos, tales como: la noticia, el reportaje, la entrevista, la crónica y el comentario. El artículo aborda el caso de los estudiantes de séptimo semestre de la carrera de Periodismo de la Universidad Laica "Vicente Rocafuerte" de Guayaquil, en el período académico 2019-2020. Se aplicó una metodología de investigación de enfoque mixto, descriptiva, explicativa y longitudinal que incluyó la encuesta y autoevaluación y las pruebas de conocimientos sobre la aplicación de reglas de ortografía, signos de puntuación, semántica, entre otros aspectos fundamentales que un estudiante debe conocer para aplicar correctamente la técnica de redacción periodística. Los resultados evidenciaron que la mayoría de los estudiantes registran falencias en la redacción por la falta de dominio y conocimientos de las reglas ortográficas, problemas de sintaxis, coherencia, claridad y precisión en el desarrollo de los textos noticiosos. Se llegó a la conclusión de que existen problemas de forma y contenido con los que los docentes tienen que lidiar y deben encontrar estrategias didácticas que permitan mitigar este problema.

Resumo Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar a aplicação estendida do analisador sintático LX-Parser em um corpus composto do trecho inicial da obra Peregrinação (publicada em 1614), de Fernão Mendes Pinto (ca. 1510-1583). Fez-se extração manual e automática de sintagmas nominais dos dez primeiros capítulos da obra. Testou-se a hipótese de que as especificidades de textos antigos limitam a precisão dos resultados gerados pelo analisador sintático considerado. A hipótese foi confirmada, uma vez que os resultados dessa aplicação estendida não se mostraram produtivos em função da alta frequência de problemas na análise produzida. Identificou-se que os principais problemas relativos a textos antigos estão relacionados à questão da extensão das sentenças, da grafia, da variação e mudança linguística. Além disso, constataram-se também problemas que não são específicos de textos antigos, mas que, ainda assim, limitaram o desempenho, como é o caso da ambiguidade estrutural e das categorias linguísticas.

Abstract This study aimed to analyze the extended application of the LX-Parser, a syntatic parser, in a corpus composed of the initial passage from Peregrinação (published in 1614) written by Fernão Mendes Pinto (ca. 1510-1583). Manual and automatic extraction of noun phrases from the first ten chapters of the work were carried out. The hypothesis that the specificities of old texts limit the accuracy of the results generated by the considered parser was tested. The hypothesis was confirmed, since the results of this extended application did not prove to be productive due to the high frequency of problems in the produced analysis. It was identified that the main problems related to old texts are related to the issue of sentece extension, spelling and linguistic variation and change. In addition, there were also problems that are not specific to old texts, but still limited performance: the issues of structural ambiguity and linguistic categories.

Abstract The symptoms of dyslexia tend to persist into adulthood. Unfortunately, many young people with reading difficulties are never diagnosed and continue dealing with their reading disabilities in postsecondary stages. The objective of this study was to identify residual problems in pre-university students through the application of a dyslexia questionnaire. Fifty-two students of the last year of high school participated, between 17 and 18 years, 26 young people classified as dyslexic because of poor reading performance and poor spelling, and 26 young people without reading difficulties. Dyslexic teenagers do not have number rotation problems, but they reported problems filling out forms, spelling correctly, and reading aloud. On the other hand, teenagers without dyslexia more often pointed out having problems with left-right discrimination, reading maps, or remembering what they had read, aspects that have often been related to dyslexia. Results corroborate that many popular beliefs about dyslexia are not based on scientific evidence and that most questionnaires could erroneously signalize people without reading difficulties. We propose a short questionnaire focused on exploring only seven specific aspects of reading that would help identify dyslexia persistent symptoms in young adults to support them to continue their academic studies.

Resumen Los rasgos de dislexia tienden a persistir hasta la edad adulta, desafortunadamente muchos jóvenes nunca son diagnosticados y continúan lidiando con sus dificultades en etapas preuniversitarias. En el presente estudio se buscó identificar las dificultades en la vida cotidiana que reportan jóvenes preuniversitarios en un cuestionario de dislexia para adultos, para lo cual se compararon las respuestas de 52 estudiantes del último grado de bachillerato, entre 17 y 18 años de edad, 26 jóvenes clasificados como disléxicos por su baja velocidad lectora y pobre conocimiento ortográfico y 26 sin dificultades lectoras, se analizó cada pregunta y su relación con el rendimiento lector. Los resultados mostraron que los jóvenes con dislexia no reportan problemas con la rotación de números, pero sí con el llenado de formas, la ortografía y la lectura en voz alta, en cambio los jóvenes sin dificultades lectoras señalaron con mayor frecuencia tener problemas para discriminar derecha-izquierda, leer un mapa o recordar lo que acaban de leer, aspectos que muchas veces se han relacionado con dislexia. Estos resultados confirman que muchas creencias populares sobre la dislexia no tienen un fundamento científico que las sustente y que los puntajes totales de los cuestionarios de dislexia podría señalar erróneamente a personas sin dificultades lectoras. Proponemos un cuestionario breve enfocado a explorar sólo siete aspectos específicos de la lectura que ayudarían a indentificar rasgos residuales de dislexia en jóvenes, con el fin de brindarles apoyo para continuar sus estudios académicos.

Resumo Os traços da dislexia tendem a persistir na idade adulta, infelizmente muitos jovens nunca são diagnosticados e continuam a lidar com suas dificuldades na fase pré-universitária. No presente estudo, buscou-se identificar as dificuldades no cotidiano relatadas por jovens pré-universitários em um questionário de dislexia para adultos, para o qual foram respondidas 52 estudantes do último ano do ensino médio, entre 17 e 18 anos de idade. , foram comparados 26 jovens classificados como disléxicos devido à baixa velocidade de leitura e baixo conhecimento ortográfico e 26 sem dificuldades de leitura, foram analisadas cada questão e sua relação com o desempenho na leitura. Os resultados mostraram que os jovens com dislexia não relatam problemas com rotação de números, mas com preenchimento de formulários, ortografia e leitura em voz alta, enquanto jovens sem dificuldades de leitura relataram com maior frequência ter problemas para discriminar direita-esquerda, ler mapa ou lembrar o que faziam. acabei de ler, aspectos que muitas vezes têm sido relacionados à dislexia. Esses resultados confirmam que muitas crenças populares sobre a dislexia não têm base científica para apoiá-las e que os escores totais dos questionários de dislexia podem apontar erroneamente para pessoas sem dificuldades de leitura. Propomos um pequeno questionário focado em explorar apenas sete aspectos específicos da leitura que ajudariam a identificar traços residuais de dislexia em jovens, a fim de fornecer-lhes suporte para continuar seus estudos acadêmicos.

Resumo O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar o desenvolvimento e a consolidação da escrita em crianças. 546 crianças de 6 a 12 anos foram avaliadas por meio de testes de escrita e leitura para medir o número de erros ortográficos. Nos resultados, constatou-se que crianças de séries iniciais cometem erros ortográficos naturais com frequência (modificação que altera a fonologia da palavra, erros de heterofone); e que todas as crianças cometem erros ortográficos arbitrários (substituição de uma letra homófona). Em particular, observou-se que as crianças da segunda série não identificam palavras com erros ortográficos e são especialistas no uso da grafia dominante para representar seus respectivos fonemas. Os erros heterófonos e homófonos diminuíram nas crianças da 4ª série, aqui houve maior dominância da relação fonema-grafema e vice-versa; além disso, o estágio de grafia foi observado nessa idade, uma vez que as crianças identificaram um número maior de palavras incorretas em relação aos da segunda série. Os alunos da sexta série apresentaram uma automação para a escrita e identificação das unidades lexicais como -ção, o que significa que podem lê-las como um todo e não como uma sequência de unidades grafema-fonema. Por fim, aprender a escrever na língua espanhola é rápido, a transição do estágio alfabético parcial para o de ortografia leva dois anos. Em alguns casos, porém, os indivíduos apresentam dificuldades ou problemas (dislexia), por isso continuam a cometer erros ortográficos naturais, apesar de serem expostos à mesma quantidade de texto que seus pares. Esses indivíduos com deficiência de aprendizagem eram perceptíveis na sexta série.

Abstract The objective of this work was to analyze the development and consolidation of writing in children. 546 children between the age of 6 to 12 years were evaluated using writing and reading tests in order to measure the number of spelling errors. In the results, it was found that children in lower grades frequently make natural spelling errors (modification that alters the phonology of the word, heterophone errors); and that all children make arbitrary spelling errors (substitution of a homophone letter). In particular, it was observed that second grade children do not identify misspelled words and that they are specialists in the use of dominant spellings to represent their respective phoneme. Heterophone and homophone errors decreased in fourth grade children, here there was a greater dominance of the phoneme-grapheme relationship and vice versa; furthermore, the spelling stage was observed at this age, since the children identified a greater number of misspelled words, compared to the second-grade children. The sixth graders showed an automation for writing and identifying lexical units as -ción, which means that they can read them as a whole and not as a sequence of grapheme-phoneme units. Finally, learning to write in the Spanish language is fast, the transition from the partial alphabetic stage to the spelling one takes two years. In some cases, however, individuals show difficulties or problems (dyslexia), so they continue to make natural spelling errors, despite being exposed to the same amount of text as their peers. These individuals with learning disabilities were noticeable in sixth grade.

Resumen El objetivo del presente trabajo fue analizar el desarrollo y consolidación de la escritura en niños. Se evaluó a 546 niños entre la edad de 6 a 12 años utilizando pruebas de escritura y lectura con el fin de medir la cantidad de errores ortográficos. En los resultados se encontró que los niños de grados inferiores cometen, de forma frecuente, errores de ortografía natural (modificación que altera la fonología de la palabra, errores heterófonos); y que todos los niños cometen errores de ortografía arbitraria (sustitución de una letra homófona). Particularmente, se observó que los niños de segundo grado no identifican las palabras mal escritas y que son especialistas en el uso de grafías dominantes para representar su respectivo fonema. Los errores heterófonos y homófonos disminuyeron en los niños de cuarto grado, aquí hubo un mayor dominio de la relación fonema-grafema y viceversa; además, la etapa ortográfica se observó a esta edad, ya que los niños identificaron una mayor cantidad de palabras mal escritas, en comparación con los niños de segundo grado. Los niños de sexto grado mostraron una automatización para escribir e identificar unidades lexicales como -ción, lo que significa que pueden leerlas como un todo y no como una secuencia de unidades grafemas-fonemas. Por último, el aprendizaje de la escritura en el idioma español es rápido, la transición de la etapa alfabética parcial a la ortográfica toma dos años. En algunos casos, sin embargo, los individuos muestran dificultades o problemas (dislexia), por lo que siguen cometiendo errores ortográficos naturales, a pesar de estar expuestos a la misma cantidad de textos que sus pares. Estos individuos con problemas de aprendizaje fueron notorios en sexto grado.

ABSTRACT Background: spelling rules are important in all spheres of life, especially during professional training. Objective: to characterize the spelling problems in Chilean students of the initial cycle belonging to health degrees. Methods: non-experimental, descriptive and cross-sectional study. Theoretical and empirical methods were applied: the review of 104 narratives written by the subjects under study, of the specialties of Nutrition, Kinesiology and Phonoaudiology. The analysis categories resulted from an adaptation of those applied by Sotomayor et al. (2013). From them, stress, use of c/s/z/b/v/h, omission and hypo/hyper-segmentation were evaluated. Data were expressed in absolute and percentage frequencies. Results: in general it was observed that students share similar values regarding the most frequent errors; in the stressing of words, those committed in the last syllable predominated in more than half of the sampled ones, while the less frequent ones corresponded with the diacritical accent; the lowest frequency of faults was in the segmentation. Nutrition students contributed with the highest percentage of incorrectly written words. Conclusions: the diagnosis made allowed to characterize the prevalence of spelling errors made by the subjects under study. This constitutes the first study carried out with Chilean university students of health sciences. It is necessary to deepen these investigations to generate contextualized strategies with the purpose of minimizing the frequency of errors or eradicating this deficiency.

RESUMEN Fundamento: las normas ortográficas resultan importantes en todo ámbito de vida, especialmente durante la formación profesional. Objetivo: caracterizar los problemas ortográficos en estudiantes chilenos de ciclo inicial pertenecientes a carreras de la salud. Métodos: estudio no experimental, descriptivo y de corte transversal. Se aplicaron métodos teóricos y como empírico: la revisión de 104 narraciones escritas por los sujetos en estudio, de las especialidades de Nutrición, Kinesiología y Fonoaudiología. Las categorías de análisis resultaron de una adaptación de las aplicadas por Sotomayor et al. (2013). A partir de ellas se evaluaron la acentuación, uso de c/s/z/b/v/h, omisión e hipo/hipersegmentación. Los datos se expresaron en frecuencias absolutas y porcentuales. Resultados: en general se observó que los estudiantes comparten valores similares en cuanto a los errores más frecuentes; en la acentuación de palabras predominaron los cometidos en las agudas en más de la mitad de los muestreados, mientras los menos frecuentes se correspondieron con la tilde diacrítica; la menor frecuencia de faltas estuvo en la segmentación. Los estudiantes de Nutrición aportaron el mayor porciento de vocablos escritos incorrectamente. Conclusiones: el diagnóstico realizado permitió caracterizar la prevalencia de errores ortográficos consumados por los sujetos en estudio. Este constituye el primer estudio realizado con universitarios chilenos de ciencias de la salud. Se hace necesario profundizar en estas investigaciones para generar estrategias contextualizadas con el propósito de minimizar la frecuencia de errores o erradicar esta deficiencia.

ABSTRACT In this paper, a model for teaching and learning orthography at universities is presented. Major ways of solving spelling problems found were as follows: comprehensive diagnosis made by teachers; planning, guidance, control, and assessment; all persons involved working together; a prominent role played by students; combining different courses and didactic games. This model is being used in undergraduates and postgraduates courses at the University of Pedagogical Sciences «Hector Alfredo Pineda Zaldivar», located in Havana, and the Manuel Fajardo University of Physical Culture and Sports from the academic year 2013-2014 until the present day. The results show that the model allows spelling in higher education institutions to be improved.

RESUMEN Se presenta un modelo para el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la Ortografía en la Universidad. Este destaca como vías fundamentales para resolver las problemáticas identificadas: la mediación del profesor desde el diagnóstico integral, la planificación, la orientación, el control y la evaluación, el trabajo cooperado de todos los implicados, el protagonismo estudiantil y la relación intermaterias desde la integración de contenidos de las diversas asignaturas del currículo y los juegos didácticos para desarrollar la habilidad ortográfica. La propuesta se ha aplicado de forma sistemática desde el curso 2013-2014 hasta la actualidad en el pregrado y en el posgrado en la otrora Universidad de Ciencias Pedagógicas «Héctor Alfredo Pineda Zaldívar» de La Habana y la Universidad de Ciencias de la Cultura Física y el Deporte «Manuel Fajardo». Los resultados obtenidos indican que el Modelo posibilita el mejoramiento de la ortografía en la Educación Superior.

RESUMO A aprendizagem da ortográfica constitui um processo complexo, envolvendo questões lexicais e gramaticais. Muitos estudos sobre essa aprendizagem tratam os problemas ortográficos de modo independente e separado da produção textual. Neste estudo defendemos a importância de se analisar a aprendizagem da ortografia a partir da perspectiva proposta pela Genética Textual, colocando em destaque a gênese do processo de escritura e criação textual. Apresentamos o Sistema Ramos, metodologia de investigação que registra o processo de escritura em tempo e espaço real da sala de aula. Esse Sistema oferece informações multimodais (fala, escrita, gestualidade) sobre o que alunos, em duplas, reconhecem como problemas ortográficos (PO) e os comentários espontâneos feitos quando estão escrevendo o texto. Este estudo analisa justamente o momento em que aconteceram esses reconhecimentos e os comentários de duas alunas no 2º ano de escolaridade, durante a produção de seis histórias inventadas. Mais do que uma análise quantitativa dos tipos de PO identificados no produto, apresentamos uma análise enunciativa e microgenética de reconhecimentos de PO e seus comentários, particularmente aqueles PO antecipados pelas escreventes. Os resultados indicam: i. Reconhecimentos ensejam comentários nem sempre relacionados ao PO identificado; ii. Reconhecimentos e comentários estão relacionados aos conteúdos ortográficos ensinados em sala de aula; iii. Alguns PO reconhecidos envolvem a articulação de diferentes níveis linguísticos. Esses aspectos podem contribuir para a compreensão da aprendizagem da ortografia em situações didáticas propiciadas pela escrita colaborativa a dois.

ABSTRACT The acquisition of spelling competence is a complex process, involving lexical and grammatical questions. Research, however, almost always places the spelling from an autonomous point of view and disconnected from the other components of writing. In this text, we present the relevance of the Ramos System that captures students in an ecological situation of text production in pairs, allowing access to the processes for solving orthographic problems. Collaborative writing also grants access to comments made by students during the process of textual linearization. Our study focuses on the recognition of spelling problems (SP) and the comments made regarding such problems by two 2nd grade students during the production of six invented stories. More than a quantitative analysis of the types of SP identified in the product, we were interested in making a qualitative and fine analysis of oral recognitions of SP, particularly those SP anticipated by the writers. Our results indicate that: i. Recognition motivates comments that are not always related to the identified SP; ii. Recognition and comments are related to the orthographic contents taught in the classroom; iii. Some of the recognized SP involve the articulation between different linguistic levels. These aspects can contribute for the comprehension of orthographic learning in didactic situations provided by collaborative writing.

This research had as purpose to elaborate a system of activities for the development of the orthographic competition in the students of masonry of the Technical and Professional Education. It is extremely important in the training of skilled workers since it has presented problems in order to guarantee the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process, by addressing the contents with an end in themselves and not in an integrated and contextualized way; given to a large extent by the lack of knowledge of the new approaches that are linked to the multiple communicative possibilities, which requires a study capable of making the necessary adjustments or redesigns that fit the needs of students to improve orthographic problems. In the investigative process were used, methods, techniques and procedures of the theoretical level, of the empirical level and statistical-mathematical, such as the system approach, modeling, analysis and synthesis, observation, surveys, documentary analysis and descriptive statistics the percentage analysis. The evaluation of specialists and the pre-experiment carried out make it possible to recommend the system of activities as a valid option for the development of orthographic competence in first-year masonry students in Technical and Professional Education.

Esta investigación tuvo como propósito elaborar un sistema de actividades para el desarrollo de la competencia ortográfica en los estudiantes de albañilería de la Educación Técnica y Profesional. Reviste suma importancia en la formación de los obreros calificados ya que esta ha presentado problemas para garantizar la efectividad en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, al abordar los contenidos con un fin en sí mismos y no de forma integrada y contextualizada; dado en gran medida por el desconocimiento de los nuevos enfoques que se vinculan a las múltiples posibilidades comunicativas, las cuales exigen de un estudio capaz de hacer las adecuaciones o rediseños necesarios que se ajusten a las necesidades de los estudiantes para mejorar los problemas ortográficos. En el proceso investigativo se utilizaron métodos, técnicas y procedimientos del nivel teórico, del nivel empírico y estadístico-matemáticos, tales como el enfoque de sistema, la modelación, el análisis y la síntesis, la observación, las encuestas, el análisis documental y de la estadística descriptiva el análisis porcentual. La valoración de especialistas y el pre-experimento realizado posibilitan recomendar el sistema de actividades como una opción válida para el desarrollo de la competencia ortográfica en los estudiantes de albañilería de primer año de la Educación Técnica y Profesional.

In 2017 the Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls (AWS) celebrates its centenary year. Our contribution commemorates this milestone with a (re)evaluation of this standard and well-known reference work - in particular of the wordlist sections of the AWS. This article - the first of two - offers a historical overview of the function, nature and scope of the wordlist as revealed in the ten different editions of the AWS. For the overview we used the different editions (from 1917 to 2009) of the AWS as primary source texts. An evaluation of the Afrikaans spelling rules falls outside the scope of the article, but because these rules have an impact on which lemmas are included in the wordlist (one of the main functions of the wordlist being to help people with their spelling problems), we looked briefly at the way in which they have been defined since 1917. The fundamental principles of the Afrikaans spelling system have essentially not changed, although they have periodically been reformulated. From 1917 to 1964 commonly used pronunciation and tradition (by which is also meant the ways in which the Afrikaans spelling system still reflects its history and relationship with Dutch spelling) remained two key criteria for the inclusion of words in the wordlist. In addition, the visible illustration and application of the spelling rules are important reasons for the inclusion (or elimination) of certain words. In the 2009 edition the main criterion for inclusion seems to be that the list must reflect contemporary written standard Afrikaans. No mention is made any longer of the commonly used pronunciation as guiding principle. With respect to its nature, the question was raised whether the wordlist can be regarded as a special kind of dictionary - one with a limited lemma list and minimal microstructural information. Within the context of how best to describe this source, problematic or unclear aspects that were investigated were the basis for lemma selection - in other words, how exactly did the various language commissions determine what can or should be regarded as standard Afrikaans? This is arguably the most important criterion for inclusion. Other issues that remained throughout the past 100 years were the treatment of two different spelling forms (so-called variant forms or "wisselvorme") like "more" and "môre" ("morning") and words of foreign origin ("krusifiks", "guillotine", "zero"/"sero"). In the treatment of these problematic cases the interaction between the three fundamental principles that inform the spelling rules are clearly illustrated. The main purpose - to help with spelling problems and to set certain norms and standards - and the size and complexity of the wordlist were explored. That the wordlist occupies a very important place in every AWS is not disputed, and we conclude that the wordlist is a very valuable reference work. Nevertheless, users' expectations when consulting the wordlist as an information source have to be realistic: - The wordlist serves as an illustration and application of the spelling rules and as such is very valuable as a guideline for all users. - The list is of course, due to various reasons, not comprehensive and it does not contain nearly as many standard Afrikaans words as do standard monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. - It does not give guidance on the spelling of non-standard Afrikaans words. It is not clear whether all users are aware of this. - By its very nature it is prescriptive and it provides a clear norm for language users. - The 2009 wordlist is much more user-friendly than its predecessors, but the hard copies are in essence static documents that have not been updated frequently enough to satisfy all the information needs of its users. Users are therefore often forced to look for other sources of information on spelling issues. With these characteristics in mind, we evaluate the electronic version of the wordlist in Part 2. This is done against the background of the current rapid development of theoretical lexicography and the increasing need of users to find the information that they need as quickly as possible. In Part 2 the focus is very clearly on the user and his or her needs.

In 2017 sal die Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls (hierna afgekort as AWS) 'n volle eeu oud wees, en hierdie bydrae gedenk die mylpaal met 'n (her)waardering van veral die woordelysdeel van die AWS. Aanvanklik word ʼn historiese oorsig gegee oor die ontstaan en ontwikkeling van die woordelys met 'n fokus op sy funksie, aard en omvang. 'n Evaluasie van die spelreëls het buite die bestek van die artikel geval, maar daar word wel kortliks stilgestaan by die grondbeginsels van die Afrikaanse spelling. Aspekte wat ondersoek is, was lemmakeuse, wat op sy beurt weer beïnvloed is deur beginsels van die Afrikaanse spelreëls soos 'n algemeen gebruiklike uitspraak, die bepaling van wat as "Standaardafrikaans" beskou kan of moet word en ander kwessies. Die doel en aard van die woordelys - kan dit byvoorbeeld as 'n spesiale soort woordeboek beskou word? - lemmaseleksie en mikrostrukturele bewerking, wisselvorme en die hantering van vreemde woorde, die normerende rol van die AWS en die omvang en volledigheid van die woordelys, kry aandag in hierdie eerste van twee artikels. Die gevolgtrekking waartoe gekom word, is dat die woordelys baie waardevol is as naslaanbron, maar wel tot 'n mate as belangrike gebruikersbron gekortwiek word deur sy aard: staties, onvolledig en voorskriftelik. Met die gebruiker in gedagte val die klem in Deel 2 dan op die nuwe moontlikhede wat 'n elektroniese woordelys sou kon bied.

When the first Afrikaanse woordelys en spelreëls (AWS) was conceived more than a hundred years ago, it was not yet standard practice to explicate the nature, goal and scope (for example with regard to inclusion and elimination criteria) of dictionaries explicitly in a dictionary conceptualisation plan. Through the years, the compilers of the AWS (i.e. the Language Commission ("Taalkommissie" (TK)) of the "Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns") provided in the respective forewords of each new edition of the AWS indications of their specific perspectives, goals and methodologies. Until 2006, no internal (or public) dictionary conceptualisation plan of the AWS existed. From 2006 onwards, the TK endeavoured to compile a style guide (addressing matters such as the sequence of dictionary tags, alphabetisation, sequence of disjunctively and conjunctively written forms, treatment of clippings, typography, etc.), as well as methodological guidelines for inclusion and elimination of lemmas in the word-list section of the AWS. None of these documents have been formally approved by the TK, or have been released in the public domain. The aim of this article is to organise and interpret some of the information contained in these documents, to construct an operationalisation framework, and to make this information available for scientific scrutiny. With regard to the nature of the AWS (as a so-called spelling or orthography dictionary), it is characterised within a broader dictionary typology as a limited, monolingual, synchronic, linguistic-encyclopaedic reference work. As such, it shares certain similarities with standard monolingual dictionaries, specifically regarding the normative character of some of these dictionaries. One can therefore also say that it is the primary goal of the AWS to set norms and standards for using present-day, written, formal Standard Afrikaans. Regarding the scope of the word-list section of the AWS, this article argues that lemmas in the AWS has a bipartite function, serving simultaneously as macro- and microstructural dictionary elements. Numerous inclusion and elimination criteria that determine the scope of the AWS are discussed and illustrated with examples from the AWS. Macrostructural criteria include: (1) lexical items that could present potential spelling problems and problems of style; (2) the status of lexical items (taking the distribution and frequency of a lexical item in corpora into account); (3) lexical items that should be included for the sake of completing certain paradigms in the AWS (e.g. derivations of language names); (4) illustration material in the rule section of the AWS; and (5) physical limitations in the scope of a to-be-published book, set by a publisher. Microstructural criteria include: (1) linguistic correctness/motivation of lexical items; (2) institutionalisation of lexical items in other dictionaries; (3) frequency of lexical items (and specifically variant lemmas) in a variety of corpora; and (4) the dictionary style and editorial policy of the AWS. A few statistical models and techniques that could be considered by the TK when analysing corpus data are also discussed. The article concludes with a summative table that could serve as an operationalised frame of reference for the AWS. A few topics for further future research are also included.

Toe die eerste Afrikaanse woordelys en spelreëls (AWS) meer as honderd jaar gelede gekonsipieer is, was dit nog nie standaard praktyk om die aard, doel en omvang van woordeboeke duidelik, omvattend en sistematies uit te spel in ʼn woordeboekkonseptualiseringsplan nie. In 2006 het die TK begin om twee dokumente saam te stel, naamlik ʼn stylgids (waarin kwessies soos die volgorde van etikette, alfabetisering, volgorde van los-, vas- en koppeltekenskryfvorme, inkortings, tipografie, en so meer aangeraak word) en riglyne vir die TK (waarin opname- en elimineringskriteria vir lemmas in die woordelysgedeelte van die AWS bespreek word). Geen van beide is tot op datum van publikasie van hierdie artikel formeel deur die TK goedgekeur of in die openbare domein beskikbaar nie. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om van daardie inligting te organiseer, daarop uit te brei en as ʼn operasionaliseringsraamwerk te formuleer. Met betrekking tot die aard van die AWS word die AWS binne ʼn groter woordeboektipologie gekarakteriseer as ʼn beperkte, eentalige, sinchroniese, linguisties-ensiklopediese naslaanbron. Die belangrikste doel van die AWS is om norme daar te stel vir die gebruik van hedendaagse, geskrewe, formele Standaardafrikaans. Met betrekking tot die omvang van die woordelysgedeelte in die AWS word daarop gewys dat lemmas in die AWS ʼn dubbele rol as woordeboekinskrywings vervul, naamlik as makro- én mikrostruktuurelemente. Verskeie opname- en elimineringskriteria wat die omvang van die AWS bepaal, word bespreek en aan die hand van verskeie voorbeelde toegelig.

Resumen El presente artículo es producto de una investigación cuyo objetivo principal fue identificar las relaciones entre los procesos de lectura y escritura. Para ello, se realizó un estudio en la ciudad de Medellín (Colombia), donde se examinó si los niños y las niñas (8 - 10 años) que presentaban dificultades de lectura (CDL) también mostraban dificultades en escritura a pesar de aportarles input visual y auditivo. Una psicóloga clínica, como criterio experto, evaluó el rendimiento de escritura en 11 participantes sin dificultades de lectura (SDL) y 12 CDL. Se analizaron diferentes tipos de errores como los de sustitución, omisión, rotación, adición, inversión, fragmentación y cambios consonánticos. Así mismo se tuvo en cuenta la latencia de la respuesta. Los resultados mostraron que el grupo CDL presenta latencias de las respuestas más altas que el grupo SDL. Asimismo, el grupo CDL invierte más tiempo en la escritura de las palabras y cometen más errores. En este sentido, los resultados apoyan la asociación de ambos procesos.

Abstract This article aims to identify the relationship between reading and writing processes. So, there was done a study in Medellín (Colombia), it examined whether children (8 -10 years) with Reading problems exhibit writing problems, in spite of the visual and auditory input. Eleven children without Reading problems and 12 with Reading problems were assessed on spelling tasks by the expert judgement of a psychologist. The study analyzed errors sucha as: substitution, omission, rotations, addition, inversion, fragmentations, and consonant changes. Also, it was used the answer latencies. The results revealed that children with Reading difficulties showed longer latencies, writing slower and committed more errors than children without Reading difficulties. In this sense, results support relationship between reading and writing processes.

When students start university, they are supposed to have already acquired a linguistic and literacy background that will allow them to write texts using an academic discourse appropriate to their level. However, most research focuses on the lack of linguistic-discourse competence in university students. After exposing these previous studies, the contents and language skills included in the curriculum of future teachers and the characteristics of university academic discourse, this paper covers an analysis of some writing samples in the tests of Spanish of three groups of first year students in the Degree in Primary Education Teacher Program from the University of Granada (Spain) in order to detect and classify these deficiencies. Results of this empirical-analytical descriptive study show that women, as well as students from Europe, perform better in the subject being evaluated, but most of them have problems in their writing (i.e., phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical-semantic, spelling and discourse errors), which are specific to previous educational stages, especially those of grammatical type, caused by their limited knowledge about textual and linguistic conventions. Conclusions focus on the need of interdisciplinary solutions from the institution itself. Some general proposals of written discursive practices integrated into the training of these future teachers are raised.

Cuando un alumno llega a la universidad, se le supone adquirido un bagaje lingüístico y lectoescritor que le permitirá la elaboración de trabajos escritos empleando un discurso académico adecuado a su nivel. No obstante, numerosas investigaciones reflejan las carencias lingüístico-discursivas del alumnado universitario. En este artículo, tras exponer estos estudios precedentes, los contenidos y competencias lingüísticas del currículo del futuro maestro y las características del discurso académico universitario, se recoge un análisis de muestras de escritura en la prueba de una materia de Lengua española de tres promociones de alumnos de nuevo ingreso en el Grado de Maestro en Educación Primaria de la Universidad de Granada (España) con el objetivo de detectar y clasificar estas carencias. Los resultados de esta investigación de metodología empírico-analítica descriptiva reflejan el mejor rendimiento de las mujeres en la asignatura que se evalúa, así como del alumnado de origen europeo, pero, principalmente, todos muestran debilidades en su expresión escrita -errores fonológicos, morfológicos, sintácticos, léxico-semánticos, ortográficos y del discurso-, errores propios de etapas educativas anteriores, sobre todo los de tipo gramatical, fruto del bajo dominio de las convenciones textuales y lingüísticas. Se concluye en la necesidad de ofrecer soluciones interdisciplinares desde la propia institución y se plantean algunas propuestas generales de prácticas discursivas escritas integradas en la formación de estos futuros docentes.

Reading problems constitute a problem world-wide. Literacy figures in South Africa are particularly worrying. The reading skills of 80% of South African children are not fully developed by the time they reach grade 5. In recent literacy tests, South African children fared worse than their peers from African countries like Mozambique, Botswana, Swaziland and Tanzania. Despite attempts to improve literacy and numeracy, South African children do not reach their potential. Many South African schools are labelled as "dysfunctional" and 79% of schools do not have libraries. This is a complex matter with multiple causes. Reading programmes may contribute to addressing this issue. There are different types of reading programmes and they can take place at different levels. One type of programme includes the use of pets. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of an animal-assisted reading programme on the word recognition and spelling skills of grade 3 children in a working class rural South African school. All the grade 3 children were assessed with the ESSI Reading and Spelling Test. Those who were identified as poor readers (N=102) were randomly assigned to three experimental groups and one control group. The Dog Group (n=27) read to a dog in the presence of a Pets as Therapy volunteer, the Adult Group (n=24) read to an adult only while the Teddy Bear Group (n=26) read to a teddy bear in the presence of an adult. The Control Group (n=25) continued with their normal school activities. Collection of the data took place before the start of the reading programme (Time 1) and directly after completion of the programme (Time 2) with a follow-up measurement eight weeks later (Time 3). The Reading Educational Assistance Dogs (R.E.A.D.) programme of Intermountain Therapy Animals was followed. Once a week during the 10 week animal-assisted reading, all the children read for approximately 20 minutes from grade 1, grade 2 and grade 3 level reading books which they chose themselves. The children were called from their classrooms, individually, to another room where they could read calmly and peacefully either to a dog with an adult present, to an adult only, or to a teddy bear with an adult present, depending on the group in which they were. Nine PAT volunteers and their therapy dogs and 10 other student volunteers were used in this project. All the volunteers received the same instructions from the researcher. At the start of the programme the reading ability of all the children were on grade 1 to 2 level. After a 10-week reading programme (Time 2) the children from the Dog Group read on a significantly higher grade level than the children from the Adult Group, the Teddy Bear Group and the Control Group. With the follow up measures at Time 3, the children from the Dog Group still performed at a significantly higher grade level than the Adult Group, the Teddy Bear Group and the Control Group. This study contributed to the knowledge of human-animal-interaction and specifically to the use of dogs to improve the reading skills of children. This unique reading programme is flexible and can be successfully used in schools and libraries. More research on this topic needs to be undertaken.

Die doel van die huidige studie was om die effek van 'n troeteldier-ondersteunde leesprogram (TOL) op die woordherkenningsvaardighede van graad 3-kinders te bepaal. Al die kinders wat met behulp van die ESSI Leestoets as nievaardige lesers (N=102) geïdentifiseer is, is ewekansig toegewys aan drie eksperimentele groepe en een kontrolegroep. Een maal per week vir 10 weke lank het die Leeshondgroep (n=27) vir 'n leeshond in die teenwoordigheid van 'n Pets as Therapy-vrywilliger gelees, die Volwassenegroep (n=24) het slegs vir 'n volwassene gelees terwyl die Teddiebeergroep (n=26) vir 'n teddiebeer in die teenwoordigheid van 'n volwassene gelees het. Die Kontrolegroep (n=25) het voortgegaan met hul normale skoolaktiwiteite. Die kinders in die drie eksperimentele groepe het individueel vir ongeveer 20 minute gelees uit graad 1-, 2- en 3-vlak boekies. Data-insameling het plaasgevind voor die aanvang van die leesprogram (Tyd 1), direk ná voltooiing van die leesprogram (Tyd 2) en met 'n opvolgmeting agt weke later (Tyd 3). Die resultate het getoon dat die kinders in die Leeshondgroep op 'n beduidend hoër graadvlak gelees het tydens Tyd 2 en Tyd 3 as die ander drie groepe.

Objective: Fluid intelligence and the behavioral problems of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are related to academic performance, but how this association occurs is unclear. This study aimed to assess mediation and moderation models that test possible pathways of influence between these factors. Methods: Sixty-two children with ADHD and 33 age-matched, typically developing students were evaluated with Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices and the spelling and arithmetic subtests of the Brazilian School Achievement Test. Dimensional ADHD symptomatology was reported by parents. Results: Our findings suggest that fluid intelligence has a significant impact on academic tests through inattention. The inattentive dimension was the principal behavioral source of influence, also accounting for the association of hyperactive-impulsive manifestations with school achievement. This cognitive-to-behavioral influence path seems to be independent of diagnosis related group, and gender, but lower socioeconomic status might increase its strength. Conclusion: Fluid intelligence is a relevant factor in the influence of ADHD behavioral symptoms on academic performance, but its impact is indirect. Therefore, early identification of both fluid intelligence and inattentive symptoms is of the utmost importance to prevent impaired academic performance and future difficulties in functioning.