Abstract In Brazil, soybeans account for 29.4% of the gross value of agricultural production. However, this crop faces various climate-related challenges. Agricultural insurance has been introduced to address these challenges, but its growth is hindered by adverse selection and systemic risks affecting insurers' financial results. This study aims to analyze the factors that influence the profitability of agricultural insurers in the state of Paraná, Brazil, from 2007 to 2021 using panel data regression, which allows for the analysis of data from various units such as municipalities and companies over time. The study findings indicate that the primary determinants of insurers' profitability, in terms of costs and productivity, were the insured area, effective productivity, and the variable for indemnity. Only Brasilseg and Mapfre showed negative results among the companies analyzed, while the new entrant, Newe, had positive results. The findings provide a detailed understanding of the factors that impact the profitability of agricultural insurers and offer valuable information for improving risk management and formulating policies, thereby contributing to the sustainability and competitiveness of the sector. Brazil 294 29 4 29.4 production However climaterelated climate related challenges Paraná 200 202 regression time productivity area indemnity analyzed entrant Newe policies sector 2 29. 20

Resumo No Brasil, a soja representa 29,4% do valor bruto da produção agropecuária. Todavia, essa cultura enfrenta diversas intempéries climáticas. Nesse sentido, o seguro agrícola emerge com o propósito de mitigar esses desafios, porém sua expansão é dificultada por problemas como a seleção adversa e os riscos sistêmicos que afetam os resultados das seguradoras. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste artigo é analisar os fatores que afetam a lucratividade das seguradoras agrícolas no estado do Paraná, no período de 2007 a 2021, por meio da regressão de dados em painel, a qual possibilita a análise de dados de várias unidades, como municípios e empresas, ao longo do tempo. Observou-se que a área segurada, a produtividade efetiva e a variável dummy indenização constituem os principais fatores determinantes da lucratividade das seguradoras tanto na modalidade de custeio como na de produtividade. Entre as empresas analisadas, apenas a Brasilseg e a Mapfre apresentaram resultados negativos, enquanto a Newe, uma empresa iniciante, teve resultados positivos. As contribuições do estudo incluem a compreensão detalhada dos fatores que afetam a lucratividade das seguradoras agrícolas e o fornecimento de informações úteis para o aprimoramento da gestão de riscos e para a formulação de políticas, contribuindo para a sustentabilidade e a competitividade do setor. Brasil 294 29 4 29,4 agropecuária Todavia climáticas sentido desafios Paraná 200 2021 painel unidades tempo Observouse Observou se segurada analisadas negativos Newe iniciante positivos políticas setor 2 29, 20 202

Abstract This article proposes a framework for integrating agricultural zoning data into insurance risk analysis. It is based on combining official public information from the Brazilian zoning program, ZARC, with open insurance data provided by the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. The methodology presented in this article transforms ZARC information into distributional data and integrates it into a Bayesian model alongside insurance indemnities data, allowing for comprehensive risk analysis. It uses information on soil types from ZARC to develop basic best- and worst-case scenarios and calculate posterior distributions using insurance data. The resulting framework enables the comparison of municipalities, crop types, and overall risk classification. The study applies the framework to analyze the risk of soybeans, corn, wheat, and corn double-crop in Paraná State, resulting in consistent risk classifications across all crops and municipalities. The proposed framework has the potential to enhance agricultural risk management analysis for reinsurers, insurers, government agencies, and private companies. Future research could explore the use of this methodology to compare insurers, analyze risk in structured operations of credit and insurance, and evaluate risks at the farm level. This article presents a potential tool for improving risk analysis and decision-making in the agricultural sector. program Livestock best worstcase worst case municipalities classification soybeans wheat doublecrop double State reinsurers insurers agencies companies level decisionmaking decision making sector

Resumo Este artigo propõe uma estrutura para integrar dados de zoneamento agrícola na análise de riscos de seguros. Baseia-se na combinação de informações públicas do programa brasileiro de zoneamento, o ZARC, com dados abertos de seguros fornecidos pelo Ministério da Agricultura e Pecuária. A metodologia apresentada transforma as informações do ZARC em dados de distribuição e as integra em um modelo Bayesiano juntamente com dados de indenizações de seguros, permitindo uma análise de risco abrangente. Utiliza informações sobre tipos de solo do ZARC para desenvolver cenários e calcular distribuições posteriores. A estrutura resultante possibilita a comparação entre municípios, tipos de culturas e classificação geral de risco. O estudo aplica a estrutura para analisar o risco de soja, milho, trigo e milho safrinha no Paraná, resultando em classificações de risco consistentes em todas as culturas e municípios. A estrutura proposta aprimora a análise de gestão de risco agrícola para resseguradoras, seguradoras, agências governamentais e empresas privadas. Pesquisas futuras poderiam explorar a metodologia para comparar seguradoras, analisar riscos em operações estruturadas de crédito e seguro, e avaliar riscos no nível das fazendas. O artigo apresenta uma ferramenta para melhorar a análise de risco e a tomada de decisões no setor agrícola. Baseiase Baseia se Pecuária abrangente posteriores municípios soja Paraná resseguradoras seguradoras privadas seguro fazendas

Nos bairros rurais do Equador, os supermercados ou armazéns em geral possuem uma identidade visual que reflete a idiossincrasia de seus proprietários e competem com os grandes negócios urbanos. Este artigo analisa o desenho de uma identidade visual baseada na filosofia de pequenos comerciantes rurais do bairro rural de Colaya Jurídica em Latacunga. Define os elementos de uma sinalização comercial para pequenas empresas. A abordagem da pesquisa foi qualitativa, com desenho metodológico de estudo de caso, aplicando o método design thinking (Lupton, 2012), e orientada em cinco etapas: empatizar, definir, idealizar, prototipar e avaliar. A seleção do caso foi baseada no consentimento de um comerciante que optou por redesenhar sua identidade empresarial atendendo a uma convocação de participantes interessados ​​em apoiar o empreendedorismo. Os resultados descrevem o processo de reformulação da identidade do pequeno supermercado, detalham os elementos considerados para o estudo, refletem sobre o design da marca visual para lojas populares do setor rural e identificam alguns motivos para o desinteresse pelo criação de letreiros estilizados e falta de design profissional.

En los barrios rurales de Ecuador las tiendas de abarrotes o despensas de ramo general cuentan con una identidad visual propia de la idiosincrasia de sus propietarios y compiten con grandes negocios urbanos. En el presente artículo se analiza el diseño de identidad visual basado en la filosofía de pequeños comerciantes rurales del barrio rural Colaya Jurídica de la ciudad de Latacunga, así como se definen los elementos de un rótulo comercial para pequeños negocios. El enfoque investigativo fue cualitativo, con diseño metodológico de estudio de caso, aplicando el método Design Thinking (Lupton, 2012), orientado a cinco etapas: empatizar, definir, idear, prototipar y evaluar. La selección del caso se sustentó en el consentimiento de una comerciante que optó por el rediseño de identidad de su negocio, en respuesta a una convocatoria para participantes interesados en apoyo a emprendimientos. Como resultados se describe el proceso de rediseño de la identidad del pequeño comercio de venta de víveres, se detallan los elementos considerados para el estudio, se reflexiona sobre el diseño de la marca visual para comercios populares del sector rural y se identificaron algunas razones del desinterés en la creación de rótulos estilizados y la carencia de diseño profesional.

In the rural neighborhoods of Ecuador, grocery stores or general stores have a visual identity that reflects the idiosyncrasy of their owners and compete with large urban businesses. This article analyzes the design of a visual identity based on the philosophy of small rural merchants in the rural neighborhood of Colaya Jurídica in Latacunga. It defines the elements of a commercial sign for small businesses. The research approach was qualitative, with a case study methodological design, applying the design thinking method (Lupton, 2012), and oriented to five stages: empathize, define, devise, prototype, and evaluate. The case selection was based on the consent of a merchant who opted to redesign her business identity in response to a call for participants interested in supporting entrepreneurship. The results describe the process of redesigning the identity of the small grocery store, detail the elements considered for the study, reflect on the design of the visual brand for popular stores in the rural sector, and identify some reasons for the lack of interest in the creation of stylized signs and the lack of professional design.

SIGNIFICANCE: Agriculture, an essential pillar of South Africa's economy, has evolved through a century of scientific advancements. This Perspective highlights the significant research contributions to the improvement of citrus and maize production, addressing historical challenges and emphasising ongoing issues such as climate change, water scarcity and soil quality The introduction of modern agricultural practices, including hybrid seeds, genetic modification, and advanced irrigation techniques, has transformed these crops, enabling increased productivity and global competitiveness. However, the sector faces persistent challenges, including the impacts of climate change and food security concerns, particularly in rural communities. We also explore future prospects, underscoring the importance of technology adoption and sustainable practices to enhance food security South Africa's agricultural research, although underfunded compared to developed nations, remains crucial for sustaining the agricultural landscape and ensuring the sector's resilience and growth in an increasingly challenging global environment

Abstract This work aims to analyze the level of access to public credit of small corn producers in the lake regions of Chapala, Pátzcuaro, and Cuitzeo in the state of Michoacán, within the framework of the neoliberal financial policy adopted in the years 1981-2022 compared to the post-revolutionary period. This productive sector is mainly characterized by having low economic income, little land area, and lack of equipment and machinery, and not being subject to credit, therefore, the members of this sector share the condition of exclusion from financing for production. The methodology used consisted of collecting historical information regarding the operation of public rural financial institutions created in the post-revolutionary period and the neoliberal transition that they experienced in the eighties. Also in obtaining data through the application of 611 surveys to identify some elements that explain the current exclusion from public credit of small corn producers in the lake regions of Michoacán. The results reveal that this productive sector has a low level of access due to the changes in public credit policy promoted by federal governments since the 1990s. These caused radical institutional modifications in the way agricultural credit operates and contributed to the current limited availability of public credit aimed at small corn producers.

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el nivel de acceso al crédito público de los pequeños productores de maíz en las regiones lacustres de Chapala, Pátzcuaro y Cuitzeo en el estado de Michoacán, en el marco de la política financiera de corte neoliberal adoptada en los años 1981-2022 en comparación con el periodo posrevolucionario. Este sector productivo se caracteriza principalmente por tener bajos ingresos económicos, disponer de poca superficie de tierra y carencia de equipo y maquinaria y no ser sujeto de crédito, por lo que los integrantes de dicho sector comparten la condición de exclusión al financiamiento para la producción. La metodología empleada consistió en recabar información histórica respecto a la operación de las instituciones financieras rurales públicas creadas en el periodo posrevolucionario y la transición neoliberal que experimentaron en los años ochenta. También en la obtención de datos mediante la aplicación de 611 encuestas para identificar algunos elementos que expliquen la actual exclusión al crédito púbico de los pequeños productores de maíz en las regiones lacustres de Michoacán. Los resultados revelan que este sector productivo tiene un bajo nivel de acceso, condición que obedece a los cambios de la política pública crediticia impulsados por los gobiernos federales desde la década de los noventa. Estos provocaron modificaciones institucionales radicales en la forma de operar el crédito agrícola y contribuyeron a que actualmente se presente una escasa disposición de crédito público dirigido a los pequeños productores de maíz.

Resumen La transición de lo rural a lo semiurbano en Yucatán ocurre principalmente en las cabeceras municipales, y trae consigo problemas de gestión de los residuos. Las autoridades municipales son las encargadas del Manejo Integral de los Residuos Sólidos Urbanos (MIRSU); pero en últimos años, la asociación entre el sector público y el privado para la gestión de los residuos resulta una estrategia eficaz. Existen pocos estudios sobre el MIRSU en zonas rurales o semiurbanas y la disposición a pagar de los usuarios, información que ayudaría a los creadores de política pública a diseñar planes y programas adecuados para su gestión. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio es determinar los factores socioeconómicos asociados a la disposición a pagar por el MIRSU de los usuarios de municipios semiurbanos de Yucatán. Se realizaron 1,144 encuestas en 6 localidades semiurbanas de Yucatán, los datos se analizaron mediante estadística descriptiva e inferencial con un modelo econométrico de regresión Tobit. El 69,75% de los usuarios encuestados declararon estar dispuestos a pagar por el manejo integral de los residuos sólidos un monto promedio de 17,65 pesos mexicanos (0,85 dólares estadounidenses). La disposición a pagar disminuye cuando predomina el idioma maya, y mientras menos activos físicos y habitaciones tenga el hogar. Existen elementos culturales y sociales arraigados en la recolección de residuos sólidos, este sistema integral puede ir acompañado de otro tipo de incentivos económicos para modificar el comportamiento de los consumidores hacia algo más beneficioso para el medio ambiente, tal como el ingreso familiar.

Abstract In Yucatan, the transition from rural to semi-urban communities has occurred mainly in the municipality seats; this transition comes with the problems of waste management. The municipalities oversee the Integral Urban Solid Waste Management (IUSWM); but in recent years, the public-private partnership for waste management has proved to be an effective strategy. There are few studies on the IUSWM in rural or semi-urban areas and the users’ willingness to pay, information that would help public policymakers to design adequate plans and programs for its management. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the socioeconomic factors associated with the willingness to pay for the IUSWM of users in semi-urban municipalities of Yucatan. A total of 1,144 interviews were conducted in 6 semi-urban localities in Yucatan, and the data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics with a Tobit regression econometric model. 69.75% of the surveyed users declared that they were willing to pay an average of 17.65 Mexican pesos (0.85 U.S. dollars) for the integral urban solid waste management. The willingness to pay decreases when the Mayan language predominates among the member of the household, and when they have fewer tangible assets and rooms. There are cultural and social factors rooted in solid waste collection, this integrated system may be accompanied by other types of economic incentives to modify consumers’ behavior towards something more beneficial for the environment, such as the homes’ income.

Abstract Agribusiness, a cornerstone of Brazil’s economic sectors, wields considerable political clout through entities like the Frente Parlamentar da Agropecuária (Parliamentary Agricultural Front; FPA), a potent force in the country’s Congress and appears to be the main driver of the anti-environmental lobby. The FPA sought to influence labour, land and tax legislation and was an important ally of Jair Bolsonaro’s administration, aligning closely with the former president’s agenda of environmental deregulation, which mirrored the economic priorities of agribusiness interests. However, the imperative to maintain a favourable public perception of the agricultural sector is evident in various communication strategies, including the deployment of paid advertisements on online platforms. In this sense, the objective of this research is to scrutinise the potential presence of greenwashing and/or disinformation within the 158 advertisements disseminated by the FPA on Facebook and Instagram throughout 2023. Using Meta’s Ad Library interface, we collected the advertisements and employed three complementary analytical approaches. These methodologies enabled us to identify and interpret the discursive tactics employed by the FPA to “enhance the image of agriculture”: automatic word counting and cooccurrence analysis, content analysis and discourse analysis. The advertisements analysed show that Brazilian agribusiness uses sustainability as a form of greenwashing and disinformation in its online communication efforts. The FPA’s digital advertising uses these discursive strategies to vilify social movements advocating for land reform and instigate fear regarding legal uncertainties surrounding property rights. Our findings indicate that these advertisements advocate for the preservation of the current socio-economic landscape in the Brazilian rural area while propagating denialism regarding the environmental impacts of agribusiness.

Resumo O agronegócio, um dos principais setores econômicos do Brasil, compõe uma das mais poderosas forças políticas no congresso do país, a Frente Parlamentar da Agropecuária (FPA), e aparece como o principal impulsionador do lobby anti-ambiental. A FPA busca incidir sobre a legislação trabalhista, fundiária e tributária e foi uma importante aliada do Governo de Jair Bolsonaro, uma vez que a agenda de desmonte ambiental do ex-presidente ia ao encontro dos interesses econômicos do agronegócio. No entanto, a necessidade de garantir uma imagem positiva do setor se reflete em diversas estratégias de comunicação, inclusive na veiculação de anúncios pagos nas plataformas online. Nesse sentido, a presente pesquisa pretende analisar a possível presença de greenwashing e/ou desinformação nos 158 anúncios publicados pela FPA no Facebook e Instagram durante o ano de 2023. Após coletarmos os anúncios na interface da Biblioteca de Anúncios da Meta, adotamos três abordagens complementares de análise que nos permitiram identificar e interpretar as estratégias discursivas empregadas pela FPA para “melhorar a imagem do agro”: contagem automática de palavras e análise de coocorrência entre elas, análise de conteúdo e análise de discurso. Nos anúncios analisados, a sustentabilidade é instrumentalizada pelo agronegócio brasileiro como greenwashing e desinformação em sua comunicação publicitária online. Essas estratégias discursivas são utilizadas na publicidade digital da FPA para criminalizar os movimentos sociais que lutam por uma reforma agrária e para disseminar pânico sobre inseguranças jurídicas relacionadas ao direito à propriedade. De uma forma geral, nossos resultados mostram que os anúncios defendem a necessidade de manutenção do status quo das relações socioeconômicas no campo brasileiro e promovem negacionismo em relação aos impactos ambientais do agronegócio.

Abstract There is a growing interest in reducing energy consumption in the economic sectors, where the residential sector is a substantial consumer of energy in societies and therefore, a focus of attention for efficiency and renewable energy generation policies. In Ecuador, residential consumption represents 1/4 of the total electricity demanded by the socioeconomic system. Household composition has changed due to demographic dynamics, socioeconomic improvements and social justice efforts, which impacts electricity consumption. The aim of this study is to analyze the dynamics of energy consumption in Ecuador´s residential sector based on the construction of household typologies under the hierarchy of demographic, geographic, economic and technical variables using a top-down and bottom-up methodology and the application of MuSIASEM for which statistical information from National Surveys and Censuses was used, which allowed the construction of household typologies and their consumption pattern. The results show heterogeneous electricity consumptions in the 4.5 million households in 2017 hierarchically divided into 240 typologies. The pattern varies from the lowest consumption households with 50 KWh/month to the highest consumption of 350 KWh/month. For example, in the urban area the highest rate is concentrated in households made up of more than 8 people with rates between 150 to 180 KWh/month, while in the rural area the values range from 90 to 120 KWh/month but differ by geographic location and male or female headship. Likewise, the data allowed scaling to aggregate levels where it is shown that, of the total annual electricity consumption of 6,428 GWh, 54% of the consumption was concentrated in the coastal region, which concentrates 51% of the total households in the residential sector of Ecuador.

Resumen Existe un interés creciente por reducir el consumo de energía en los sectores económicos, donde el sector residencial es un consumidor sustancial de energía en las sociedades y por tanto, un foco de atención para las políticas de eficiencia y de generación energética renovable. En Ecuador, el consumo residencial representa un 1/4 del total de electricidad que demanda el sistema socioeconómico. La conformación de los hogares ha cambiado por la dinámica demográfica, mejoras socioeconómicas y los esfuerzos por la justicia social, lo cual impacta en el consumo de electricidad. El objetivo del estudio es analizar la dinámica del consumo de energía en el sector residencial del Ecuador a partir de la construcción de tipologías de hogares bajo la jerarquización de variables demográficas, geográficas, económicas y técnicas utilizando una metodología top-down y bottom-up y la aplicación de MuSIASEM para lo cual se utilizó información estadística de Encuestas y Censos Nacionales, que permitió construir las tipologías de hogares y su patrón de consumo. Los resultados muestran consumos de electricidad heterogéneos en los 4,5 millones de hogares presentes en 2017 divididos jerárquicamente en 240 tipologías. El patrón varía desde los hogares de menor consumo con 50 KWh/mes hasta los de mayor consumo de 350 KWh/mes. Por ejemplo, en la zona urbana la mayor tasa se concentra en los hogares conformados por más de 8 personas con tasas entre 150 a 180 KWh/mes, mientras que en la zona rural los valores oscilan entre 90 a 120 KWh/mes, pero difieren por ubicación geográfica y por su jefatura masculina o femenina. Igualmente, los datos permitieron escalar a niveles agregados donde se muestra que, del total de consumo anual de electricidad de 6,428 GWh, el 54% del consumo se concentró en la región Costa que concentra el 51% del total de hogares del sector residencial del Ecuador.

Abstract The aim of the study was to analyze, from a feminist perspective, the empowerment and value perception of the work performed by women in the production of mezcal and its by-products in a rural community in Oaxaca. It was a qualitative study that addressed the women’s view through their self-perception and men’s perception of them. A semi-structured interview divided into eight areas and a questionnaire were applied to measure the empowerment based on two validated scales through nine factors. As a result, women participate widely in activities such as preparation and distribution of food, production, and commercialization of mezcal and mezcal-derived liquors, and the time they invest was from 10 to 14 hours a day, which is interpreted as a high workload. A 94.7 score of self-perception and perception of women´s empowerment was found, out of 138 points. The study concludes that although women’s participation in the production of mezcal and its by-products is wide and their level of empowerment ranges from medium to high, an improvement in their self-appraisal has not been possible due to their heavy care workload. A limitation of this research is it case study approach and thus findings cannot be be generalized to the population. The originality of this works relies on the research approach which addressed women’s and their partners’ view on a topic related to a work considered exclusively done by men.

Resumen En esta investigación se analizó la valoración del trabajo y el nivel de empoderamiento de las mujeres dentro de la producción del mezcal y sus derivados, desde la autopercepción femenina y la percepción masculina, con un enfoque metodológico feminista, en una comunidad rural de Oaxaca. Fue un estudio cualitativo y con elementos cuantitativos que consideró la visión de las mujeres a través de la autopercepción y la percepción de los varones sobre ellas. La metodología se construyó de acuerdo con el contexto social de las mujeres. Se aplicó una entrevista-semiestructurada mediante ocho ejes temáticos y un cuestionario de medición del empoderamiento formado de dos escalas validadas a través de nueve factores. Como resultado, las mujeres participan ampliamente en actividades desde el abasto alimentario, producción y comercialización del mezcal y licores; la inversión de tiempo fue de 10 a 14 horas al día, lo que se interpreta como alta carga de trabajo. Según la autopercepción y percepción sobre el empoderamiento de las mujeres, se alcanzaron 94.7 puntos de 138 esperados (68.9). Se concluye que, si bien la participación de las mujeres en el sector productivo del mezcal y sus derivados es amplia y su empoderamiento es de medio a alto, la mejora de su autovaloración no ha sido posible debido a una sobrecarga de su trabajo de cuidados. Una limitante de la investigación es que consideró a la población de estudio como caso de una comunidad específica, por lo cual los resultados no pueden generalizarse a la población. Este trabajo es original por el abordaje de la investigación que consideró la visión desde las mujeres y sus parejas en el tema de un trabajo netamente considerado de varones.

RESUMEN En el sector rural, la dimensión de género es importante y emerge como un eje de análisis para interpretar la nueva ruralidad. El género aborda tanto a los varones como a las mujeres, y estos se desenvuelven sobre el actual contexto de cambio climático con variación global del clima de la tierra. Las mujeres y los varones en las zonas rurales de Bolivia tienen muchos roles y oportun idades diferentes en el contexto del desarrollo rural, que no están distribuidos por igual. En este sentido, el objetivo del presente trabajo fue recopilar y analizar información referente a la participación de la mujer en el proceso de desarrollo rural, así como en su perspectiva de género. Se aplicó una metodología que consistió en la recopilación de información secundaria proveniente de artículos científicos, de investigación, de análisis provenientes de revistas científicas indexadas en repositorios internacionales, así como información proveniente de instituciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales cuyas áreas de acción son inherentes al ámbito agropecuario. De acuerdo con los resultados, a pesar de la incorporación de políticas públicas, normas, leyes, aún se continúa con brechas de género que muestran desigualdad en los Andes de Bolivia, esto principalmente a causa de las costumbres arraigadas que limitan la participación activa de las mujeres rurales.

ABSTRACT In the rural sector, the gender dimension is important and emerges as an axis of analysis to interpret the new rurality. Gender addresses both men and women, and they evolve in the current context of climate change with global variation of the earth's climate. Women and men in rural Bolivia have many different roles and opportunities in the context of rural development, which are not equally distributed. The purpose of this study was to compile and analyze information on women's participation in the rural development process and its gender perspective. A methodological approach was applied that consisted of compiling secondary information from scientific articles, research articles, analyses from scientific journals indexed in international repositories, as well as information from governmental and non-governmental institutions whose areas of action are inherent to the agricultural sector. The results show that despite the incorporation of public policies, norms and laws, there are still gender gaps that show inequality in the Bolivian Andes, mainly due to ingrained customs that limit the active participation of rural women.

Abstract: This article uses data from the Census of Agriculture 2014 pertaining to the Department of Boyacá. It connects the production performance at the municipal level to a set of rural determinants, which encompass the exploitation of the agricultural potential. This approach highlights features of the agricultural sector in Boyacá: the predominance of annual crops, the break-up of agricultural units, the family arrangements to supply labor input, and the lack of a widespread export stuff, inter alia. The methodology employs a spatial approach that seeks to identify spatial patterns in the agricultural output, using the municipality as the spatial unit. We resort to spatial econometrics to model the determinants of the agricultural output, and to point out a better spatial structure according to the pool of data. The econometric results confirm a kind of spatial dependence in the error, suggesting the influence of common shocks affecting the agricultural output, everywhere the municipalities of Boyacá. Throughout the region, the traditional production profile, based on annual crops to satisfy the national consumption, prevails. This type of production depends on typical rural conditions: small plots of land, little mechanized production, family work and precarious wages. JEL Classification: R12; R14; R58; C51; N56.

Resumen: El artículo se inspira en los resultados del Censo Agrícola 2014 para Boyacá. El propósito es relacionar el desempeño puramente productivo con los determinantes de economía campesina que sirven de contexto a la producción en toneladas. Entre estos últimos se destacan la especialización en cultivos transitorios, la fragmentación de las unidades de producción agrícolas, la provisión familiar de trabajadores, la ínfima importancia de la oferta exportable, etc. La metodología adopta un enfoque espacial que persigue identificar los patrones espaciales de la producción, definiendo el municipio boyacense como la unidad de análisis en el plano geográfico. La econometría dilucida cuál es la mejor estructura en el espacio que modela los datos básicos. De esta manera se convalida el modelo de error espacial, que da lugar a la presencia de shocks comunes a todos los municipios boyacenses, afectando en todos ellos la producción agrícola. La interacción entre dichas unidades geográficas permite modelar la producción volcada mayoritariamente hacia el mercado nacional, la cual es explicada significativamente por determinantes típicamente rurales: la fragmentación de las unidades agrícolas, las técnicas de producción escasamente mecanizadas, la relevancia del trabajo familiar como factor de producción, y las precarias remuneraciones.

BACKGROUND. The COVID-19 pandemic had a profound effect on the health sector globally and in South Africa (SA). OBJECTIVE. To review the effects of COVID-19 on maternal, perinatal and reproductive health outcomes and service utilisation in SA. METHODS. Three routine national data collection systems were sourced: the District Health Information System, the Saving Mothers reports of the National Committee on Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths and the Saving Babies reports from the National Perinatal Morbidity and Mortality Committee using data from the Perinatal Problem Identification Program. RESULTS. There were 35% and 8% increases in maternal and stillbirth mortality rates, respectively, in 2020 and 2021, which correlated with the COVID-19 waves. However, in 2022, rates returned to pre-COVID levels. Antenatal visits and facility births showed little change, but there was a shift to more rural provinces. The use of oral and injectable contraceptives and termination of pregnancy services decreased markedly in 2020 and 2021, with a sustained shift to long-acting reversible contraceptives. The increase in maternal deaths was predominantly due to COVID-19 respiratory complications, but also an increase in obstetric haemorrhage. Stillbirths increased significantly (10%) for birthweights between 2 000 g and 2 499 g, categorised mostly as unexplained stillbirths or preterm labour, but no increase in neonatal deaths was observed. Administrative avoidable factors increased by 24% in the 2020 - 2022 triennium, but there was no increase in patient/community level or healthcare provider-related avoidable factors during the pandemic years. CONCLUSION. COVID-19 caused a marked increase in maternal death and stillbirth rates in 2020 and 2021 due to both direct effects of the virus and indirect effects on functioning of the health system. The continued, although modified, health-seeking behaviour of women and the rapid return to pre-COVID-19 mortality rates demonstrates enormous resilience in women and the health system.

Maternal healthcare in South Africa faces huge private and public health systems challenges. A key challenge for policy makers is how to address the inappropriate patterns of obstetric care in the private sector and how to mobilise private sector resources to serve the broader population dependent on the public sector, without replicating those patterns of inappropriate care. Developing and implementing new obstetric care models that address these challenges and lend themselves to public private engagements could play a vital role in efforts to improve obstetric care in the country. Drawing on insights from research we carried out on the care and contracting models used by five rural district hospitals in the Western Cape Province to contract private general practitioners to provide caesarean delivery services, this article outlines a potential alternative private sector obstetric care model with the aim of stimulating discussion by all relevant stakeholders on the development of new obstetric models for improving obstetric care in the country.

Abstract: This study analyzes the evolution of Paraguay’s gender earnings gap from 2002 to 2019. It uses data from household surveys harmonized by the IDB. We estimate the gap using Blinder-Oaxaca and Ñopo decompositions and find that much of the gap cannot be explained by factors like experience, personal and family characteristics, industry, occupation, region, or setting and is likely tied to regulatory factors, biases, or discrimination. The gap is widest in the informal sector, especially among less educated and rural people. Regarding a nationwide widening or narrowing of the gap we find no clear trend during the period analyzed.

Resumen: Se analiza la evolución de la brecha de género en ingresos laborales de Paraguay entre 2002 a 2019. Se realizan las descomposiciones de Blinder-Oaxaca y Ñopo con datos de encuestas de hogares armonizadas por el BID, encontrando que la brecha no está explicada por variables como experiencia, características personales y familiares, actividad, ocupación, región o zona, y está relacionada a factores regulatorios, sesgos o discriminación. La brecha es más amplia en el sector informal, especialmente entre la población rural y con menor educación. No se percibe un patrón claro de reducción o aumento de la brecha en el periodo analizado.

Resumo O objetivo do artigo foi caracterizar a situação da inclusão financeira no setor rural do cantão de Guayaquil, bem como o papel das cooperativas de poupança e crédito nesse processo. Os métodos utilizados foram hipotético-dedutivos, bem como revisão e análise documental, pesquisa e entrevista. O estudo foi realizado nas paróquias rurais de Posorja, Puná, Tenguel e Morro, em Guayaquil, Equador, onde vive um total de 27.017 pessoas com mais de 18 anos de idade. Constatou-se que as cooperativas de poupança e crédito são mais relevantes em locais onde a ruralidade e a pobreza são maiores e que a população rural tem uma percepção mista do desempenho das instituições financeiras formais, pois desconfia e está insatisfeita com a forma como esses estabelecimentos operam. Os níveis de inclusão financeira são insuficientes, enquanto as cooperativas de poupança e crédito podem contribuir para melhorar essa situação.

Abstract The article aimed to characterize the situation of financial inclusion in the rural sector of the Guayaquil canton, as well as the role of savings and credit cooperatives in this process. The hypothetical-deductive methods were applied, as well as the documentary review and analysis, the survey and the interview. The study was carried out in the rural parishes of Posorja, Puná, Tenguel and Morro in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where a total of 27,017 people over 18 years of age reside. It was obtained that savings and credit cooperatives have greater relevance in places where rurality and poverty are greater and that people in rural areas maintain a regular perception of the development of formal financial entities, since they are distrustful and dissatisfied with the way these establishments operate. Levels of financial inclusion are insufficient, while savings and credit cooperatives can contribute to improving this situation.

Resumen El artículo tuvo como objetivo caracterizar la situación de la inclusión financiera en el sector rural del cantón Guayaquil, así como el papel de las cooperativas de ahorro y crédito en este proceso. Como métodos se aplicaron el hipotético-deductivo, así como la revisión y análisis documental, la encuesta y la entrevista. El estudio se llevó a cabo en las parroquias rurales de Posorja, Puná, Tenguel y Morro en Guayaquil, Ecuador, donde residen un total de 27017 personas mayores de 18 años. Se obtuvo que las cooperativas de ahorro y crédito tienen una mayor relevancia en lugares donde la ruralidad y pobreza es mayor y que las personas del medio rural mantienen una percepción regular ante el desenvolvimiento de las entidades financieras formales, ya que se muestran desconfiadas e insatisfechas con la forma de funcionamiento de estos establecimientos. Los niveles de inclusión financiera son insuficientes, mientras que las cooperativas de ahorro y crédito pueden contribuir a mejorar esta situación.