Abstract This essay questions, with regard to medicine, the idea of progress as technological development by focusing on people rather than things. It analyzes how the predominance of such an idea of progress converts today’s societies to techno-fetishism that degrades community life and medical practice, contributing to the medicalization of social life. It is argued that the realization of technological potentialities depends on their forms of use; that the main motive of technological development is unlimited profit and that priority developments are those that enhance the social control that maintains the status quo. The intelligence as an intelligence quotient is criticized by proposing it as an attribute of the human being as a whole, manifested in the ways of thinking and proceeding of people in their circumstances, where affectivity and critical thinking are essential for their development; it is emphasized that its antecedent is the harmonic concert of planetary life that contrasts with the prevailing human disharmony. It is proposed that artificial intelligence is the most recent creation of techno-fetishism that deposits vital attributes in technology and that its forms of use will accentuate the degradation of human and planetary life. Another idea of medical progress is proposed, based on forms of organization conducive to the development of inquisitive, critical and collaborative skills that promote permanent improvement, whose distant horizon is dignifying progress: spiritual, intellectual, moral and convivial sublimation of collectivities in harmony with the planetary ecosystem.

Resumen Este ensayo cuestiona, a propósito de la medicina, la idea de progreso como desarrollo tecnológico al centrarlo en las personas y no en las cosas. Se analiza cómo el predominio de tal idea de progreso convierte a las sociedades actuales al tecno-fetichismo que degrada la vida comunitaria y la práctica médica contribuyendo a la medicalización de la vida social. Se argumenta que la realización de las potencialidades tecnológicas depende de sus formas de uso, que el móvil principal del desarrollo tecnológico es el lucro sin límites, y que los desarrollos prioritarios son los que potencian el control social que mantiene el statu quo. Se critica la idea de inteligencia como cociente intelectual al proponerla como atributo del ser humano como un todo, manifiesto en las formas pensar y proceder de las personas en sus circunstancias, donde la afectividad y el pensamiento crítico son imprescindibles para su desarrollo. Se destaca que su antecedente es el concierto armónico de la vida planetaria contrastante con la disarmonía humana imperante. Se plantea que la inteligencia artificial es la más reciente hechura del tecno-fetichismo que deposita en la tecnología atributos vitales, y que sus formas de uso acentuarán la degradación de la vida humana y planetaria. Se propone otra idea de progreso médico basado en formas de organización propicias para el desarrollo de aptitudes inquisitivas, críticas y colaborativas que impulsen la superación permanente, cuyo horizonte lejano es el progreso dignificante: sublimación espiritual, intelectual, moral y convivencial de las colectividades en armonía con el ecosistema planetario.

Resumen Este ensayo cuestiona, a propósito de la medicina, la idea de progreso como desarrollo tecnológico al centrarlo en las personas no en las cosas. Se analiza cómo el predominio de tal idea de progreso convierte a las sociedades actuales al tecno-fetichismo que degrada la vida comunitaria y la práctica médica contribuyendo a la medicalización de la vida social. Se argumenta: que la realización de las potencialidades tecnológicas depende de sus formas de uso; que el móvil principal del desarrollo tecnológico es el lucro sin límites y que los desarrollos prioritarios son los que potencian el control social que mantiene el statu quo. Se critica la idea de inteligencia como cociente intelectual al proponerla como atributo del ser humano como un todo, manifiesto en las formas pensar y proceder de las personas en sus circunstancias, donde la afectividad y el pensamiento crítico son imprescindibles para su desarrollo. Se destaca que su antecedente es el concierto armónico de la vida planetaria contrastante con la disarmonía humana imperante. Se plantea que la inteligencia artificial es la más reciente hechura del tecno-fetichismo que deposita en la tecnología atributos vitales y que sus formas de uso acentuarán la degradación de la vida humana y planetaria. Se propone otra idea de progreso médico basado en formas de organización propicias para el desarrollo de aptitudes inquisitivas, críticas y colaborativas que impulsen la superación permanente, cuyo horizonte lejano es el progreso dignificante: sublimación espiritual, intelectual, moral y convivencial de las colectividades en armonía con el ecosistema planetario.

Abstract This essay challenges the idea of progress as technological development in relation to medicine by focusing on people rather than things. It analyzes how the prevalence of such an idea of progress leads contemporary societies to a technofetishism that degrades community life and medical practice, contributing to the medicalization of social life. It is argued that the realization of technological potentialities depends on their forms of use, that the main motive of technological development is unlimited profit, and the priority developments are those that enhance social control which maintains the status quo. Intelligence as an intelligence quotient is criticized by proposing it as an attribute of the human being as a whole, manifested in the ways of thinking and acting of human beings in their circumstances, where affectivity and critical thinking are essential for their development; it is emphasized that its antecedent is the harmonic concert of planetary life, which contrasts with the prevailing human disharmony. It is proposed that artificial intelligence is the latest creation of technofetishism, which deposits vital attributes in technology, and that its use will accentuate the degradation of human and planetary life. Another idea of medical progress is proposed, based on forms of organization that is conducive to the development of inquisitive, critical, and collaborative skills that promote permanent improvement, whose distant horizon is dignified progress: the spiritual, intellectual, moral, and convivial sublimation of collectivities in harmony with the planetary ecosystem.

RESUMEN Este artículo muestra que los episodios pasados de corridas bancarias en Estados Unidos exhiben un patrón común de comportamiento. Las corridas son endógenas a situaciones de insolvencia percibidas como resultado de la adopción de prácticas riesgosas impulsadas por el afán de lucro en un contexto de regulación o desregulación de pérdidas/inadecuadas. Esto hace que las instituciones financieras sean más vulnerables a los cambios en las condiciones externas. Los enfoques convencionales de las corridas bancarias se basan en una caracterización de una economía que se asemeja a una economía cooperativa (todos los recursos son compartidos por igual por todos los participantes) en lugar de una economía empresarial cuyo motivo final es la obtención de beneficios. Como resultado, proporcionan historias inverosímiles sobre las corridas bancarias. Sobre la base de los hechos estilizados de las corridas bancarias, este documento presenta las principales premisas para una teoría alternativa.

ABSTRACT The paper shows that past bank run episodes in the United States display a common pattern. Runs are endogenous to situations of perceived insolvency concerns resulting from the adoption of risky practices driven by the profit motive within a context of lose/inadequate regulation or deregulation. Risky practices make financial institutions more vulnerable to changes in external conditions. The mainstream approaches to bank runs are based on a characterization of an economy that resembles a cooperative economy (all resources are shared equally by all participants) rather than an entrepreneur economy whose end-motive is profit making. As a result, they provide implausible stories about bank runs. Building on the stylized facts of bank runs this paper presents the main building blocks for an alternative theory.

This exploratory project deals with a topic not common in the subject literature, namely an attempt to break with the traditional approach to the management of crime, which is seen as protracted (Galtung) or deep-rooted (Burton) social conflict. The traditional approach to the phenomenon of crime is to fight violence with violence, which can be described with the well-known military metaphor of waging a trench war against crime. By blending one of the branches of critical criminology, known as peacemaking criminology (the seminal work of Quinney and Pepinsky, in particular), with the broader movement of peace-building in conflict transformation, I argue that fighting violence by peaceful means instead is arguably a worthwhile effort, even though it would require a considerable paradigm shift. The alternative - attempting to combat crime with violence - has failed repeatedly. In this contribution, the question is raised whether or not the prison service as a public institution in South Africa is capable of being transformed from an institution propagating negative peace (in the form of the absence of crime) into one advocating positive peace (in the sense of achieving peace by peaceful means). The idea of positive, as opposed to negative, peace is especially Galtung 's. I contend that South Africa's relatively conservative climate makes the suggestion of de-incarceration unlikely to fall on sympathetic ears, even though the case for decriminalising petty crime (with its unmistakable colonial roots) and alternative models to imprisonment is a compelling one. The South African view is conditioned by issues such as the politicisation of crime, the corruption of our understanding of crime by phenomena such as the prison-industrial complex (PIC) and the profit motive embedded in crime management as it has come to shape the PIC. The endless recycling of ex-offenders in our stigmatising shaming culture is an important, though certainly not exclusive, driver of South Africa's alarmingly high rates of incarceration and recidivism. I argue that the idea of open prisons (as found in some European countries, in particular Finland, and in countries such as Zimbabwe and the Seychelles), may well take root, but that the further-reaching objective of prison abolition should be postponed indefinitely. I am sceptical, along with academic authors from both the East and the West, about the possibility of academic knowledge - even if it is supported by evidence - influencing public policy formulation in the field of crime management. My argument is built around Eugene McLaughlin's contention that mainstream conventional criminology is complicit in the state's uncritical fusing of its electoral mandate with the agenda of Big Business, which causes far more injury and death than so-called conventional crime; and that the influence of academic criminological discourse on the formulation of public policy on crime control and management has waned, while vested interests in criminal justice and the privatisation of the "crime control industry" have in fact filled the gap. Add to these disturbing trends the view of both Colin Leys and Colin Crouch that while government embraces neo-liberal interests, it pays mere lip service to the academic recommendations of experts in the field. My research design, conceptual and theoretical framework, and research question and objectives are meant to stimulate debate along the lines suggested. Central to these proposals is the idea that the transformation of the prison system in South Africa would be feasible only if ex-offenders'basic human needs are realised. It is worth noting that Burton has contributed substantially to the theory that realising basic human needs would prevent prolonged social conflict. Against the background of Pat Carlen's warning that the rehabilitation paradigm has become redundant because of political reluctance to effect fundamental change, concerns over the widening of the so-called "carceral spread" (Foucault) are highlighted in the context of the broad prison transformation discourse in South Africa. I justify my scepticism about the possibility of public policy formulation being influenced in any meaningful way by an academic discourse such as this, but nonetheless offer seven recommendations in this regard. The recommendations range from urgently addressing the worst features of this country's harshly stigmatising shaming culture - which leads to the endless recycling of those who are subject to that culture and form a very marginalised group - to arguing in favour of criminalising the stigmatisation of ex-offenders by having it declared hate speech and an offence that carries both civil and criminal sanctions. I conclude the article by expressing the hope that this exploratory approach to a decidedly novel view of conflict management and crime transformation would stimulate debate and new thinking about the notion of addressing the issue of crime by peaceful means rather than the outmoded methods and repeated failures of attempting to fight violence with violence.

Tradisionele benaderings in hoofstroomkriminologie formuleer misdaadbekamping as 'n voortdurende of voortslepende konflik waarin geweld as 't ware met geweld beveg moet word. In teenstelling hiermee word nuwer rigtings in kritiese kriminologie in hierdie artikel verken en onderskryf - benaderings wat positiewe vrede beskou as 'n effektiewe en blywende(r) "antwoord", selfs al is dit net ten dele, op die probleem van misdaad. Die ietwat onkonvensio-nele benadering in rigtings wat krities teenoor hoofstroomkriminologie staan, in die besonder die vertakking bekend as "vredemakende kriminologie" (Quinney en Pepinsky se bydrae), word in samehang met belangrike werk in die breër konfliktransformasiebeweging beskou. Op grond daarvan word betoog dat vrede wat op vreedsame wyse bewerkstellig word, groter voordeel inhou as die mislukte pogings tot dusver om geweld met geweld te (probeer) beveg. Dit verg egter 'n paradigmaverskuiwing. In hierdie bydrae word daar spesifiek gevra na die wenslikheid daarvan om die Suid-Afrikaanse gevangeniswese te transformeer van 'n openbare instelling wat negatiewe vrede (in die vorm van die afwesigheid van misdaad) verskans, tot 'n instelling wat positiewe vrede as 'n waardestelsel onderskryf. Hierdie waardevolle gedagte staan sentraal by Galtung. Daar word veral aan die hand gedoen dat die bekendstelling van oop gevangenisse (soos in Zimbabwe, Mosambiek en die Seychelle) en ander modelle wat in Suid-Afrika ondersoek word, 'n goeie tussentydse maatreël is. Wat sentraal staan in my redenasie rakende die trans-formasie van die gevangeniswese in Suid-Afrika, is dat so 'n voorstel slegs haalbaar is indien daar aan (vrygelate) gevangenes se basiese menslike behoeftes (Burton se belangrike bydrae) - werkverskaffing, respek, ens. - voldoen word. Teen die agtergrond van Pat Carlen se waarskuwing dat die rehabilitasieparadigma ontoereikend geword het weens politieke onwilligheid om grondliggende veranderinge aan te bring, word enkele besware oor die gevaar van 'n sogenaamde oorkoepelende "carceral spread" (aldus Foucault), gemik teen alternatiewe vir gevangenisstraf, oorweeg. Hierdie bespreking vind plaas in die konteks van die breër gevangenistransformasiediskoers hier te lande. Hoewel ek skepties staan teenoor die moont-likheid dat akademiese diskoers, soos hierdie bydrae, beleidsoorwegings wesenlik kan beïnvloed, doen ek nietemin aanbevelings in die hoop dat hierdie verkennende studie belangstelling in 'n vreedsame alternatief vir misdaadbekamping sal prikkel.

Resumen Robert Proctor e Ian Bolin acunaron el término agnotología para designar el estudio de la ignorancia. Este escrito propone superar la visión de la ignorancia como un vacío que puede ser llenado por el conocimiento e invita a pensar en las formas en que hoy se produce, en forma premeditada y estructural: por negligencia, miopía, secreto o supresión. El autor muestra que la creación deliberada de la ignorancia es una estrategia para engañar y sembrar dudas sobre los hechos observados y sobre el conocimiento científico, tomando como ejemplos el papel de los secretos comercia-les, la actividad de las tabacaleras para negar la relación causal entre el consumo de cigarrillos y el cáncer y el papel del secreto militar. Por último analiza algunos casos en que la ignorancia es una expresión de valores morales, como la prohibición, en algunas universidades, de investigaciones cuyo único fin es el afán de lucro y, en algunas revistas científicas, de publicar trabajos financiados por ciertas fuentes, así como el rechazo de ciertas tecnologías por razones intelectuales y morales bien fundadas. JEL: A19

Abstract Robert Proctor and Ian Bolin coined the term agnotology to designate the study of ignorance. This paper proposes to overcome the vision of ignorance as a void that can be filled by knowledge and invites us to think about the ways in which it is produced today, in a premeditated and structural way: through negligence, myopia, secrecy or suppression. The author shows that the deliberate creation of ignorance is a strategy to compromise and sow doubts about the observed facts and about scientific knowledge, taking as examples the role of trade secrets, the activity of tobacco companies to deny the causal relationship between the cigarette smoking and cancer and the role of military secret. Finally, some cases in ignorance is an expression of moral values, such as the prohibition, in some universities, of research whose sole purpose is the profit motive and, in some scientific journals, of publishing works financed by certain sources, as well as the rejection of certain technologies for well-founded intellectual and moral reasons. JEL: A19

Resumo Robert Proctor e Ian Bolin cunharam o termo agnotologia para designar o estudo da ignorância. Este artigo propõe-se a superar a visão da ignorância como um vazio que pode ser preenchido pelo conhecimento e nos convida a pensar sobre as maneiras pelas quais é produzido hoje, de maneira premeditada e estrutural: por negligência, miopia, sigilo ou supressão. O autor mostra que a criação deliberada da ignorância é uma estratégia para enganar e semear dúvidas sobre os fatos observados e sobre o conhecimento científico, tomando como exemplo o papel dos segredos comerciais, a atividade das empresas de tabaco em negar a relação causal entre os tabagismo e câncer e o papel do segredo militar. Por fim, analisa alguns casos em que a ignorância é uma expressão de valores morais, como a proibição, em algumas universidades, de pesquisas cujo único objetivo é o lucro e, em algumas revistas cien tíficas, a publicação de obras financiadas por determinadas fontes, como a rejeição de certas tecnologias por razões intelectuais e morais bem fundamentadas. : A19

Resumo Objetivo: Embora haja um reconhecimento cada vez maior dos custos da externalidade do baixo desempenho ambiental das empresas, ainda há diferenciais significativos entre as empresas na gestão do desempenho ambiental. Baseamo-nos nas teorias da gestão estratégica para investigar os fatores que contribuem para esses diferenciais. Metodologia: Usando uma amostra da pesquisa de 2015 com pequenas e médias empresas chinesas, investigamos empiricamente a tese alternativa de que o motivo da maximização do lucro constitui a heurística adequada para a gestão de desempenho dos fatores da responsabilidade social corporativa. Resultados: A capacidade verde das empresas é um agregado do comércio verde e dos investimentos que as empresas fazem em iniciativas verdes complementares ao seu modelo de negócio estratégico. O nível de aspiração de lucro das empresas tem influência negativa sobre sua programação verde, ao passo que a liderança transformacional tem influência positiva. Contribuições: Desenvolvemos sete proposições representadas como relações algébricas para interpretar esses fatores.

Abstract Purpose: Even though there is a growing recognition of the externality costs of low environmental performance by firms, there continue to be significant inter-firm differentials in environmental performance management. We build on the theories of strategic management to inquire into the factors contributing to these differentials. Design/methodology/approach: Using a 2015 survey sample of Chinese small and medium enterprises, we empirically investigate the alternative thesis that the profit maximization motive constitutes the appropriate heuristic for the performance management of corporate social responsibility factors. Findings: The green capability of a firm is an aggregate of green trading and the investments that the firm has made in green initiatives that are complementary to its strategic business model. The profit aspiration level of firms has a negative influence on their green programing, while transformational leadership has a positive influence. Originality/value: We develop seven propositions represented as algebraic relationships to interpret these factors.

Abstract: This work represents a legal comparative analysis of the crime of migrant smuggling, set forth and sanctioned in Articles 318 Bis and 411 Bis of the Spanish and Chilean criminal codes, respectively. In particular, we address the possibility to establish this figure’s protected legal interest, thus leaning to why it would be a multi-offense crime, in which both individual and collective interests are at stake. On the other hand, we address the possibility to define the victim protected by the regulation. Finally, we contemplate the criminal conduct’s ruling verb.

Resumen: El presente trabajo realiza un análisis jurídico comparado del delito de tráfico de migrantes, previsto y sancionado en el artículo 318 Bis y 411 Bis de los códigos penales español y chileno, respectivamente. En particular, se atiende a poder establecer el bien jurídico tutelado por esta figura, inclinándose a por qué se trata de un delito pluriofensivo en el que están en juego intereses individuales y colectivos. Por otro lado, se ocupa de poder delimitar el sujeto pasivo que es protegido por la norma penal. Finalmente, se reflexiona sobre los verbos rectores de la conducta criminal.

Given the difficulties inherent in differentiating societal contribution from the profit motive in corporate organisations, this article aims to improve scholarly understanding of the factors that underlie divergent organisational approaches to social welfare and societal outcomes. In doing this a model is proposed that draws on Schwartz's seminal values theory to categorise organisations according to a values typology, which is taken to represent 'organisational social character.' The model categorises organisations into four typologies, which are then applied to develop a framework to predict organisational decision processes and societal outcomes. A holistic discussion based on a literature review and theoretical development leads to generation of propositions on decision processes, decision responses and impact on social welfare. Of the four typologies derived from this analysis, namely strategic opportunist,' institutional preservationist,' moral traditionalist,' and virtuous radical,' we argue that the latter orientation can provide stakeholders with a model of how organisations can transcend a narrow short term profit orientation and instead develop an organisational character that better incorporates societal contribution as a 'lived' organisational objective.

The purpose of this article is to critically discuss the tragedy that occurred between 11 and 16 August 2012 at the Lonmin Mine in Marikana, South Africa. Although the events leading up to the Marikana massacre were complex and not one single factor was responsible for the tragedy we will focus on the philosophical and anthropological aspect that may have influenced the breakdown of engagement between the management of Lonmin and workers. It will be argued that this breakdown may have been the result of reductionist anthropological trends that arise in capitalism. These trends selectively utilize modern economic principles to advance the profit motive of business and dehumanises workers. This dehumanisation is clear in the view of workers by the Lonmin management and breakdown of communication. In order to provide an alternative anthropology the philosophy of Paul Ricoeur with special reference to his work Fallible man (1986) is explored and applied as an alternative anthropology for the reductionist trends related to labour that sporadically arise in capitalism. This offers a balanced view that incorporates the aim of responsible business to make profit with that of a sustainable labour market.

Die doel van hierdie artikel is om 'n kritiese bespreking te doen van die tragedie wat tussen 11 en 16 Augustus 2012 afgespeel het by die Lonmin-myn in Marikana, Suid-Afrika. Hoewel die gebeure wat aanleiding gegee het tot die Marikana-slagting kompleks is en nie gereduseer kan word tot een enkele faktor wat verantwoordelik was vir die tragedie nie, sal ons fokus op die filosofiese en antropologiese aspekte wat gelei het tot die ineenstorting van die kommunikasie tussen die bestuur van Lonmin en die werkers. Daar sal aangevoer word dat hierdie ineenstorting die gevolg kon wees van reduksionistiese antropologiese neigings wat binne die raamwerk van kapitalisme ontwikkel. Hierdie neigings maak op 'n selektiewe basis gebruik van modern ekonomiese beginsels om die winsmotief van besighede te bevorder, en dit lei tot die ontmensliking van die werker. Hierdie ontmensliking is duidelik sigbaar uit die oogpunt van die werkers teenoor die agtergrond van die Lonmin-bestuur en die ineenstorting van kommunikasie tussen die partye. Om 'n alternatiewe antropologie voor te stel, word ondersoek ingestel na die filosofie van Paul Ricoeur, met spesifieke verwysing na sy werk Fallible man (1986) en dit word toegepas as 'n alternatiewe antropologie vir die reduksionistiese neigings wat saamhang met arbeid soos wat dit sporadies in kapitalisme opduik. Dit bied 'n gebalanseerde gesigspunt wat die doel van verantwoordelike besighedspraktyke (om wins te maak) inkorporeer met 'n volhoubare arbeidsmark.

Chilean companies' activities, their scant links to the communities where they operate, and their social-environmental impact are being strongly called to account. In this research, the authors' interest has been to understand if a rationality of collaboration, understanding, and joint work is possible between groups with social-community interests and the entrepreneurial dynamic. Data from 17 semi-structured interviews with representatives of unions and civic and consumer organizations indicate that civil society's wat-chdog stance of denunciation seems to take precedence over a vision of trust and understanding vis-à-vis companies.

En Chile ha comenzado a realizarse un profundo cuestionamiento a las empresas, a su escasa vinculación con las comunidades en las que operan y al impacto socioambiental que generan. Nuestro interés en esta investigación ha sido comprender si una racionalidad de colaboración, entendimiento y trabajo conjunto entre grupos de interés socio-comunitarios y con una lógica empresarial es posible. Los datos recogidos en 17 entrevistas semiestructuradas a representantes de organizaciones sindicales, ciudadanas y de consumidores nos indican que la racionalidad de denuncia y fiscalización asumida por la sociedad civil parece primar por sobre una visión de confianza y entendimiento con las empresas.

En el marco de una propuesta de reforma a la educación superior, surgen tensiones respecto de temas como la autonomía, la financiación, la calidad, la educación superior y los sentidos de la universidad. La educación superior como mercancía representa una orilla ideológica distinta a la consideración de esta como bien público al servicio de la sociedad. Este documento describe algunas tensiones respecto de los sentidos de la universidad, a partir del reconocimiento de las visiones antagónicas y los paradigmas que están detrás de dichas visiones, para defender la necesidad de mantener a la universidad alejada de la búsqueda de la maximización de la rentabilidad financiera.

Tensions arise within the bounds of a higher education reform proposal, in relation to issues such as autonomy, financing, quality, higher education and the sense and meaning of University. Higher education as merchandise represents an ideological side that differs from the one in which it is considered as a public good at the service of society. This document describes some of those tensions regarding the senses and meanings of University based on the acknowledgement of the opposing visions and paradigms behind them, in order to defend the need to keep University away from the search of maximizing the financial profitability.

No marco de uma proposta de reforma da educação superior, surgem tensões a respeito de temas como a autonomia, o financiamento, a qualidade, a educação superior e os sentidos da universidade. A educação superior como autonomia representa um limite ideológico diferente à consideração desta como bem público ao serviço da autonomia. Este documento descreve algumas tensões a respeito dos sentidos da universidade, a partir do conhecimento das versões antagônicas e dos paradigmas que estão por trás dessas visões, para defender a necessidade de manter a universidade afastada da busca da maximização da autonomia.

actualmente existe un intenso debate en círculos académicos sobre los principios que tradicionalmente han sustentado las teorías económicas y la enseñanza en dirección de empresas. Una de las cuestiones más controvertidas es la idea de que el ser humano está motivado principalmente por su propio interés. La maximización del beneficio y los mecanismos dirigidos a la protección de los intereses de los accionistas se han convertido en la esencia de lo que serían unas buenas prácticas de dirección empresarial. Este artículo propone un cambio de orientación hacia una visión más amplia y a la vez más realista a la hora de considerar los valores de los individuos en la esfera de la enseñanza en dirección de empresas.

Atualmente, existe um intenso debate em círculos acadêmicos sobre os princípios que tradicionalmente as teorias econômicas e o en-sino em direção de empresas têm sustentado. Uma das questões mais controvertidas é a ideia de que o ser humano está motivado principalmente por seu próprio interesse. A maximização do benefício e dos mecanismos direcionados à proteção dos interesses dos acionistas se converteu na essência do que seriam umas boas práticas de direção empresarial. Este artigo propõe uma mudança de orientação a uma visão mais ampla e ao mesmo tempo mais realista na hora de considerar os valores dos indivíduos na esfera do ensino em direção de empresas.

Profound reflection is currently being made in academic circles upon the principles which have long been the basis of economic theories in the teaching of business management. Amidst the issues discussed is the concept of human nature driven primarily by self-interest. Profit maximization and governance mechanisms in order to protect shareholders' interests have become the essence of all good business practice. The present paper proposes a change in direction towards a wider and more realistic perspective with regards to the individual's values within the sphere of the teaching of business management.

Il existe actuellement un débat académique important concernant les principes qui contribuent à soutenir traditionnellement les théories économiques et l'enseignement en direction d'entreprises. Une des questions les plus discutées est celle de l'idée que l'être humain est motivé principalement par son propre intérêt. La recherche d'un bénéfice maximum et les mécanismes de protection des intérêts des actionnaires représentent essentiellement les bonnes pratiques de direction d'entreprises. Cet article propose un changement d'orientation et une vision plus étendue et réaliste pour considérer les valeurs des individus dans la sphère de l'enseignement en direction d'entreprises.

A variedade de instituições e organizações existentes crescentemente caracteriza os sistemas econômicos avançados. Ao passo que as teorias econômicas tradicionais enfocavam quase que exclusivamente organizações maximizadoras de lucros (ou seja, empresas geradoras de lucro) e organizações governamentais, a crescente relevância das organizações sem fins lucrativos e particularmente das organizações sociais exige dos pesquisadores reflexões sobre uma nova abordagem econômica ampla, capaz de explicar tal variedade organizacional. Neste artigo, examinam-se as principais limitações das teorias ortodoxas e institucionais e reafirma-se a necessidade de criar e testar um novo arcabouço teórico, que leve em conta as formas variadas empregadas por organizações diversas na perseguição de seus objetivos, as variadas motivações que impelem os atores e as organizações, e os diferentes padrões de aprendizagem e rotinas dentro das organizações. O novo arcabouço analítico aqui proposto baseia-se em desenvolvimentos recentes, principalmente evolutivos e comportamentais, das teorias da empresa. Esta passa a ser interpretada como um mecanismo de coordenação da atividade econômica cujos objetivos não coincidem forçosamente com a maximização de lucros. Ao contrário, os agentes econômicos são hoje movidos por uma complexidade de motivações e uma vontade intrínseca e não monetária de manter um papel crucial na formação das atividades da firma, acima e além de objetivos puramente monetários ou financeiros. Acredita-se que o novo arcabouço seja particularmente apropriado para a correta interpretação da emergência e do papel de formas organizacionais e de propriedade não tradicionais, as quais não são movidas pela busca de lucros (organizações sem fins lucrativos), sendo reconhecidas principalmente nos formatos legais das cooperativas, Organizações Não Governamentais (ONGs) e empresas sociais. Uma gama contínua de formas organizacionais, que vão desde atividades geradoras de lucro até atividades voltadas ao bem público, e que englobam organizações de benefício mútuo como seu principal constituinte, são aqui consideradas e discutidas.

Institutional and organizational variety is increasingly characterizing advanced economic systems. While traditional economic theories have focused almost exclusively on profit-maximizing (i.e., for-profit) enterprises and on publicly-owned organizations, the increasing relevance of non-profit organizations, and especially of social enterprises, requires scientists to reflect on a new comprehensive economic approach for explaining this organizational variety. This paper examines the main limitations of the orthodox and institutional theories and asserts the need for creating and testing a new theoretical framework, which considers the way in which diverse enterprises pursue their goals, the diverse motivations driving actors and organizations, and the different learning patterns and routines within organizations. The new analytical framework proposed in the paper draws upon recent developments in the theories of the firm, mainly of an evolutionary and behavioral kind. The firm is interpreted as a coordination mechanism of economic activity, and one whose objectives need not coincide with profit maximization. On the other hand, economic agents driven by motivational complexity and intrinsic, non-monetary motivation play a crucial role in forming firm activity over and above purely monetary and financial objectives. The new framework is thought to be particularly suitable to correctly interpret the emergence and role of nontraditional organizational and ownership forms that are not driven by the profit motive (non-profit organizations), mainly recognized in the legal forms of cooperative firms, non-profit organizations and social enterprises. A continuum of organizational forms ranging from profit making activities to public benefit activities, and encompassing mutual benefit organizations as its core constituent, is envisaged and discussed.

La variedad de instituciones y organizaciones caracteriza, cada vez más, sistemas económicos avanzados. Al paso que las teorías económicas tradicionales enfocaban casi exclusivamente organizaciones maximizadoras de lucros (o sea, empresas generadoras de lucro) y organizaciones gubernamentales, la creciente relevancia de las organizaciones sin fines lucrativos y particularmente de las organizaciones sociales exige de los científicos reflexiones sobre un nuevo abordaje económico amplio, capaz de explicar tal variedad organizacional. Este artículo examina las principales limitaciones de las teorías ortodoxas e institucionales y reafirma la necesidad de crear y probar un nuevo marco teórico, que tome en cuenta las formas variadas empleadas por las diversas organizaciones en la persecución de sus objetivos, las variadas motivaciones que impelen a los atores y a las organizaciones, y los diferentes estándares de aprendizaje y rutinas dentro de las organizaciones. El nuevo marco analítico aquí propuesto se basa en desarrollos recientes, principalmente evolutivos y comportamentales, en la teorías de la empresa, que pasa a ser interpretada como un mecanismo de coordinación de la actividad económica cuyos objetivos no coinciden forzosamente con la maximización de lucros. Al contrario, los agentes económicos son movidos por una complejidad de motivaciones y una voluntad intrínseca y no monetaria de desempeñar un papel crucial en la formación de las actividades de la empresa que transcienden los objetivos puramente monetarios o financieros. Se considera que el nuevo marco sea particularmente apropiado para la correcta interpretación del surgimiento y del papel de formas organizacionales y de propiedad no tradicionales, que no son movidas por la busca de lucros (organizaciones sin fines lucrativos) y que son reconocidas principalmente en los formatos legales de las cooperativas, ONG y empresas sociales. Este artículo considera y discute una gama de formas organizacionales que van desde actividades generadoras de lucro hasta actividades dirigidas al bien público y que engloban organizaciones de beneficio mutuo como su principal constituyente.

BACKGROUND: National Health Insurance (NHI) is currently high on the health policy agenda. The intention of this financing system is to promote efficiency and the equitable distribution of financial and human resources, improving health outcomes for the majority. However, there are some key prerequisites that need to be in place before an NHI can achieve these goals. OBJECTIVES: To explore public perceptions on what changes in the public health system are necessary to ensure acceptability and sustainability of an NHI, and whether South Africans are ready for a change in the health system. METHODS: A cross-sectional nationally representative survey of 4 800 households was undertaken, using a structured questionnaire. Data were analysed in STATA IC10. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: There is dissatisfaction with both public and private sectors, suggesting South Africans are ready for health system change. Concerns about the quality of public sector services relate primarily to patient-provider engagements (empathic staff attitudes, communication and confidentiality issues), cleanliness of facilities and drug availability. There are concerns about the affordability of medical schemes and how the profit motive affects private providers' behaviour. South Africans do not appear to be well acquainted or generally supportive of the notion of risk cross-subsidies. However, there is strong support for income cross-subsidies. Public engagement is essential to improve understanding of the core principles of universal pre-payment mechanisms and the rationale for the development of NHI. Importantly, public support for pre-payment is unlikely to be forthcoming unless there is confidence in the availability of quality health services.

ABSTRACT The title of the paper alerts the reader to the fact that while the role of money in Keynes’s earlier work is alluded to, it is mostly the monetary contribution of the General Theory (to which the author is particularly partial) which is surveyed here. The General Theory represents a breakthrough in monetary theory both broadly and narrowly defined. Money in the General Theory is all-pervasive. It is essential in the sense of Radner and Hahn. Money is also essential in allowing Keynes to break away, more profoundly than before, from equilibrium economics. Monetary theory narrowly defined also represents a breakthrough: speculative demand is a revolutionary concept, driving a wedge between the rate of interest and the rate of profit. The concept is elaborated and compared with Hicks’s treatment. The article ends with a brief section on the finance motive and endogenous money. Keyness s partial here allpervasive. allpervasive all pervasive. pervasive all-pervasive Hahn away before economics profit Hickss Hicks treatment

RESUMO O título do artigo alerta o leitor para o fato de que, embora seja mencionado o papel do dinheiro no trabalho anterior de Keynes, é principalmente a contribuição monetária da Teoria Geral (da qual o autor é particularmente parcial) que é pesquisada aqui. A Teoria Geral representa um avanço na teoria monetária, definida de maneira ampla e restrita. O dinheiro na teoria geral é onipresente. É essencial no sentido de Radner e Hahn. O dinheiro também é essencial para permitir que Keynes se afaste, mais profundamente do que antes, da economia de equilíbrio. A teoria monetária estritamente definida também representa um avanço: a demanda especulativa é um conceito revolucionário, gerando uma barreira entre a taxa de juros e a taxa de lucro. O conceito é elaborado e comparado com o tratamento de Hicks. O artigo termina com uma breve seção sobre o motivo financeiro e o dinheiro endógeno. parcial aqui restrita onipresente Hahn afaste antes equilíbrio revolucionário lucro Hicks endógeno