Abstract Neoliberalism goes beyond a simple economic program or political ideology; it is a global civilizing project of a practical normative logic that defines the norms of life and social relations. But perhaps the greatest novelty offered by neoliberalism with respect to classical liberalism is the general principle of generalized competition that forces the rejection of cooperation as a basic principle of coexistence, equality and social development. This principle of generalized competition has been incorporated in all social organizations, including academia, as a reference of scientific knowledge. In the last 20 years, Higher Education Institutions have undergone a change of model under the protection of a deep economic and ethical crisis in Spain and the influence of globalization. In this sense, this paper focuses mainly on two issues: generalized competition and changes in higher education institutions in Spain. On the one hand, generalized competition has replaced cooperation as a basic principle in coexistence and social development and, on the other hand, higher education institutions in Spain have undergone changes that have increased inequality and the gender gap, leading to the consolidation of an elitist and patriarchal university.

Resumen El neoliberalismo va más allá de un simple programa económico o una ideología política, se trata de un proyecto civilizatorio global de una lógica normativa práctica que define las normas de vida y las relaciones sociales. Pero quizás, la mayor novedad que ofrece el neoliberalismo con respecto al liberalismo clásico es el principio general de la competencia generalizada que obliga a rechazar la cooperación como principio básico de la convivencia, la igualdad y el desarrollo social. Ese principio de la competencia generalizada se ha incorporado en todas las organizaciones sociales, incluida la Academia como referente del conocimiento científico. Y es que, en estos últimos 20 años, las Instituciones de Educación Superior, han sufrido un cambio de modelo al amparo de una profunda crisis económica y ética en España y la influencia de la globalización. En este sentido desde este trabajo se centran principalmente dos temas: la competencia generalizada y los cambios en las instituciones de educación superior en España. Por un lado, que la competencia generalizada ha reemplazado a la cooperación como principio básico en la convivencia y desarrollo social y, por otro, que las instituciones de educación superior en España han experimentado cambios que han incrementado la desigualdad y la brecha de género, llevando a la consolidación de una universidad elitista y patriarcal.

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this article is to discuss the scope of the horizontal effectiveness of fundamental rights or Drittwirkung in legal-labor relations. It places special emphasis on the necessary delimitation of these rights, according to the main characteristics of the employment relationship: steering power and the principle of labor good faith, applying this to the analysis of the exercise of the right to religious freedom. This article analyzes, particularly, a recent ruling by the Court of Justice of the European Union on “non-discrimination” for religious reasons inside the company.

RESUMEN: El presente artículo tiene como objeto plantear el alcance de la eficacia horizontal de los derechos fundamentales o Drittwirkung en las relaciones jurídico-laborales. Pone especial énfasis en la necesaria delimitación de estos derechos, atendiendo a las características principales de la relación de trabajo: el poder de dirección y el principio de buena fe laboral, aplicando dicho análisis al ejercicio del derecho a la libertad religiosa. Este artículo se detiene, particularmente, en el estudio de una reciente sentencia del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea en materia de “no discriminación” por razones religiosas dentro de la empresa.

RESUMEN El presente artículo profundiza el estudio de los factores que influyen en el acceso a la justicia de las mujeres víctimas de violencia doméstica, que la ONU Mujeres (2018) identifica como circunstancias situacionales. El objetivo es analizar las circunstancias situacionales y su relación con el derecho de acceso a la justicia en las mujeres víctimas de violencia doméstica. La metodología empleada para este análisis es cualitativa, de lógica inductiva analítica. Las circunstancias situacionales presentes limitan la oportunidad de ejercer el derecho de acceso a la justicia en las mujeres en condiciones de igualdad, en contraposición al principio de universalidad, para poner en crisis la vigencia de este derecho fundamental.

ABSTRACT This article deepens the study of the factors that influence access to justice for women victims of domestic violence that UN Women (2018) identifies as situational circumstances. The objective is to analyze the situational circumstances and their relation-ship with the right of access to justice for women victims of domestic violence. The methodology used was qualitative, analytical inductive logic. The present situational circumstances limit the opportunity for women to exercise the right of access to justice under conditions of equality in opposition to the principle of universality, placing the validity of this fundamental right in crisis.

RESUMO Este artigo aprofunda o estudo dos fatores que influenciam o acesso à justiça para mulheres vítimas de violência doméstica que a ONU-Mulheres (2018) identifica como circunstâncias situacionais. O objetivo é analisar as circunstâncias situacionais e sua relação com o direito de acesso à justiça das mulheres vítimas de violência doméstica. A metodologia utilizada será qualitativa, com lógica analítica indutiva. As atuais circunstâncias situacionais limitam a oportunidade de exercer o direito de acesso à justiça para as mulheres em condições de igualdade, em contraste com o princípio da universalidade, para colocar em foco a validade deste direito fundamental.

Abstract The relationship between the right to health and the right to adequate medical care has always been a problem. There is no doubt as to the existence of the right, but there are provisions, such as Article 26 of the ACHR, that relativize the scope of the State's obligations in this area. It is generally stated that it is not possible to fully satisfy this right. With this starting point, the international regulation of the matter is explored, and then moves on to the study of the Uruguayan Constitution and the existing health insurance. In short, for the case under study, the moderation of Article 26 is questioned, and it is concluded that the State must take charge of medicines when the individual cannot afford them.

Resumen La relación entre el derecho a la salud y a recibir una asistencia médica adecuada siempre ha sido un problema. No hay duda en cuanto a la existencia del derecho, pero hay disposiciones, como el artículo 26 de la Convención Americana de Derechos Humanos (CADH), que relativizan el alcance de las obligaciones del Estado en esta materia. En general se afirma que no es posible satisfacer este derecho en forma completa. Con este punto de partida, se explora la regulación internacional de la salud, para pasar luego al estudio de la Constitución uruguaya y del seguro médico existente. En definitiva, para el caso en estudio, se cuestiona la mesura del artículo 26 y se concluye en que el Estado debe hacerse cargo de los medicamentos cuando el individuo no pueda afrontar su costo.

Abstract The objective of this study was to verify the theoretical and/or methodological approaches and perspectives that professors from degree courses on Biology, in the State of Pará within the Amazon area, take into consideration in relation to Education for Sustainability in the basic training of their students. The field research, based on a quality approach, involved professors from public Higher Education Institutions that have provided the degree course on Biology for at least five years. Data collection consisted of a questionnaire including 28 questions of specific nature, spread out in seven categories contextualized with the principles of Education for Sustainability and six general questions related to the basic training of participants. The results have been analyzed utilizing software Iramuteq and expressed through the use of similitude trees and specificity analysis. It was possible to verify that, in their teaching practices, professors emphasize the following principles: “right to life”, “right to equality”, and “right to respect”. On the other hand, the principle “right to culture” was the one with most significant discrepancy values. Generally speaking, professors have indicated perspectives of teaching that prioritize a critical, contextualized, and practical formation intended for their students. A careful need for reformulation and update of the teaching practice was observed, in what it concerns the inclusion and strengthening of the cultural, social, and environmental dimensions. andor or area students research approach years 2 nature participants analysis practices right life, life , life” equality, equality equality” respect. respect . respect” hand culture values speaking critical observed cultural social dimensions

Resumo O presente estudo objetivou verificar as abordagens e perspectivas teóricas e/ou metodológicas que docentes dos cursos de licenciatura em biologia, da região amazônica paraense, consideram sobre a Educação para a Sustentabilidade na formação dos discentes. A pesquisa de campo, com abordagem qualitativa, envolveu docentes de Instituições de Ensino Superior da rede pública, as quais ofertam o curso de licenciatura em biologia há pelo menos cinco anos. A coleta de dados ocorreu por meio de um questionário composto por 28 questões de caráter específico, distribuídas em sete categorias contextualizadas com os princípios da Educação para a Sustentabilidade, e seis questões de caráter geral, estas relacionadas com a formação dos participantes. Os resultados foram analisados com o uso do software Iramuteq e expressos por meio de árvores de similitude e análise de especificidade. Foi possível verificar que os professores dão maior ênfase, em suas práticas docentes, aos princípios: “direito à vida, direito à igualdade e direito ao respeito”. De modo contrário, o princípio “direito à cultura” foi o que apresentou valores mais expressivos de discordância. Em termos gerais, os docentes mostram perspectivas de atuação que priorizam a formação crítica, contextualizada e prática para seus estudantes. Percebeu-se a necessidade de uma atenta reformulação e atualização da prática docente, no que diz respeito à inclusão e ao fortalecimento das dimensões cultural, social e ambiental. eou ou paraense discentes campo qualitativa pública anos 2 específico geral participantes especificidade ênfase vida respeito. . respeito” contrário cultura discordância gerais crítica estudantes Percebeuse Percebeu se docente cultural ambiental

Abstract: The term Ubuntu is often presented as a mere ontological, philosophical African worldview. However, the aim of this article is to equate Ubuntu philosophy with a category of open legal principles of a constitutional nature, which, although they are not formally enshrined in the written constitutions of southern African countries that share the Bantu culture, have a normative deontic character. Therefore, it is worth emphasising that this category of thought is socially present as a norm of practical reason, from which emanates the concept of justice of the Bantu peoples, who preserve a communitarian cultural identity rather than individualistic Western liberalism. The purpose of this study is to associate this worldview with a constitutional foundation of African states, especially those in southern Africa, equating it with the principles of human dignity, equality and freedom, etc., which is important for the consolidation of human rights in Africa. On the other hand, this worldview is confronted by the post-modern paradigms of global liberalism, which is also currently amalgamated in African countries. In order to achieve this objective, the research will be conducted using a methodology based on a bibliographical review and a deductive approach, supported by elements of constitutional legal dogma. Abstract ontological However nature culture character Therefore reason peoples liberalism states Africa dignity freedom etc etc. hand postmodern post modern objective approach dogma

Resumo: A expressão Ubuntu é apresentada muitas vezes como uma mera cosmovisão ontológica, filosófica africana. Entretanto, este artigo tem objetivo de equiparar a filosofia Ubuntu como uma categoria de princípios jurídicos abertos de natureza constitucional, que, embora não estejam plasmados formalmente, nas Constituições escritas dos países da África austral, que partilham da cultura bantu, possuem um caráter deôntico normativo. Portanto, vale frisar que essa categoria de pensamento está presente socialmente como uma norma de razão prática, da qual emana o conceito de justiça dos povos bantus, os quais preservam uma identidade cultural comunitarista, ao invés do liberalismo ocidental individualista. A proposta deste estudo é associar essa cosmovisão a um fundamento constitucional dos Estados africanos, sobretudo os da África austral, equiparando com os princípios da dignidade humana, igualdade e liberdade etc., sendo importante para a consolidação dos direitos humanos na África. Por outra perspectiva, confronta-se essa cosmovisão em virtude dos paradigmas pós-modernos do liberalismo global, que também está amalgamado atualmente, nos países africanos. E, para concreção desse objetivo, a pesquisa será conduzida por uma metodologia pautada na revisão bibliográfica e por método de abordagem dedutiva, coadjuvada pelos elementos da dogmática jurídica constitucional. Resumo ontológica africana Entretanto formalmente austral bantu normativo Portanto prática bantus comunitarista individualista africanos humana etc etc. perspectiva confrontase confronta se pósmodernos pós modernos global atualmente E dedutiva

For an institution of higher education such as the Universidad de Antofagasta, it is imperative to emphasize the importance of state funding for public universities. State support is crucial to preserve their autonomy and contribute to society's development. Recently, the solidarity expressed by the Consortium of State Universities of Chile (CUECH) towards the Interuniversity Council of Argentina (CIN) underlines the importance of public education and scientific research in solving our societies' structural problems. Throughout its history, Chile has faced persistent socioeconomic inequalities manifested in a disparate distribution of resources and educational opportunities. Low-income families are significantly affected, encountering more significant obstacles to accessing quality education, which contributes to perpetuating the educational gaps in the country. The State's higher education institutions have a fundamental and missionary role in this context: finding solutions through their teaching and research to propel Chile toward full development. Nevertheless, these public universities must have adequate funding to achieve this goal. Adequate financial resources guarantee the quality of the education they offer and strengthen their capacity to face the country's social and economic challenges. Studies in European and North American countries reinforce the importance of state funding for higher education. Research such as that of Barr and Crawford 1 in the United Kingdom has shown that adequate government support is essential to ensure academic excellence and equality of opportunity in public universities. Additionally, studies in the United States have highlighted that government investment in research and development in public institutions boosts innovation and economic progress 2. Doyle and Skinner's work 3, which has highlighted how state funding in scholarship and student aid programs in public universities in the United States has contributed to improving accessibility and equity in higher education, is another relevant example 3. Various studies in Chile have highlighted the challenges public universities face regarding funding and educational quality. The report of the National Accreditation Commission (CNA) has identified significant inequalities in funding and quality among higher education institutions in the country. Moreover, academic studies conducted by institutions such as the Center for Public Studies (CEP) and Foundation Chile21 have highlighted the need to increase state funding to ensure equitable access to higher education and improve the quality of education (CEP). These researches highlight the importance of adequate public policies that promote equity and access to higher education in our country. Meanwhile, studies such as 4 have evidenced how excessive dependence on the market as a regulator of public universities' success can undermine their mission of generating knowledge and serving society. Therefore, it is paramount that the state recognize the strategic role of regional universities in developing the country and sustainably increase its financial support. This distinction will contribute to reducing territorial inequalities and strengthening the educational system's capacity to face the challenges of the 21st century. Adequate state funding is an indispensable requirement to guarantee the quality, equity, and autonomy of state universities. From the Universidad de Antofagasta, we reaffirm our commitment to public higher education and call on all interested parties to rally in defense of this fundamental principle for our society's human and social development.

Resumen El presente trabajo tiene por finalidad poner de manifiesto la necesidad de establecer un sistema de justicia especializada para grupos vulnerables. Como punto de referencia, se utiliza la experiencia chilena en la materia. Se plantean interrogantes sobre qué grupos merecen consideración especial y cómo lograr la especialización sin comprometer la neutralidad del derecho que pretende además la universalidad de este, al menos, a nivel local. Se aborda la idea de que esta consideración diferenciada es una necesidad y su fundamento se apoya esencialmente en dos cosas: una comprensión del derecho de acceso a la justicia como derecho autónomo y el principio de la igualdad relativa como igualdad material. Aunque no se aborda la implementación práctica, se ofrecen orientaciones indicativas, lo que permitiría optimizar herramientas procesales y sustantivas del Derecho, mejorando el acceso a la justicia de grupos vulnerables. Para delinear el camino a la especialización se abordan puntos clave como la definición de grupos vulnerables y el debate sobre si basta con una solución procesal o es necesaria una corrección de Derecho penal material. Para concluir, se plantea la insuficiencia de una solución meramente administrativa y la viabilidad de la especialización de la justicia teniendo en cuenta la posibilidad de que se vulnere, finalmente, la neutralidad y objetividad del Derecho penal y procesal penal. En última instancia, se abre el cuestionamiento de si la justicia especializada es una solución más empática que jurídica, que tiende a mermar las soluciones sociales por sobre las individuales. referencia materia este menos local cosas material práctica indicativas concluir vulnere finalmente instancia jurídica individuales

Abstract The aim of this paper is to highlight the need to establish a specialised justice system for vulnerable groups. The Chilean experience in this area is used as a reference point. Questions are raised as to which groups deserve special attention and how specialisation can be achieved without compromising the neutrality of the law, which also aims at universality, at least at the local level. The idea that this differentiated consideration is a necessity is addressed, and its basis is essentially based on two things: an understanding of the right of access to justice as an autonomous right, and the principle of relative equality as material equality. Although it does not deal with practical implementation, it offers indicative guidelines that would allow for the optimisation of procedural and substantive legal instruments, thereby improving access to justice for vulnerable groups. In order to outline the path towards specialisation, key issues such as the definition of vulnerable groups and the debate on whether a procedural solution is sufficient or whether a correction of substantive criminal law is necessary are addressed. Finally, it discusses the insufficiency of a purely administrative solution and the feasibility of judicial specialisation, considering the possibility that the neutrality and objectivity of criminal law and criminal procedure may ultimately be violated. Finally, the question is raised as to whether specialised justice is a more empathetic than legal solution, which tends to undermine social solutions over individual ones. point universality level addressed things implementation instruments Finally violated ones

In King v De Jager (CCT 315/18) [2021] ZACC 4 (19 February 2021), the Constitutional Court considered whether a discriminatory out-and-out disinheritance clause in a private will could be declared unenforceable in terms of public policy. This opened private wills with disinheritance clauses to the scrutinising evaluation of public values despite freedom of testation. Although public policy has always been an elusive concept, South African public policy is infused with constitutional values to give more clarity on the content of public policy. In King a conflation emerged between constitutional rights, legislative violations and public policy values, however. The court grappled with the question of whether to apply the Constitution directly based on a violation in terms of section 9(4) or whether the section 8 of the Equality Act should be applied directly through the subsidiarity principle, or whether the discriminatory clause should be evaluated through the public policy lens. Where the conflicting values were weighed up there seem to be hints of subjective views to tip the scales in favour of one value over another. This is a concern when public policy is used to advance a subjective view of what the community values more, especially when it involves the disruption of the devolvement of a deceased's estate. This underlines the difficult application of public policy values, even in a constitutional democracy, when competing values are at play.

Abstract: A reflection is presented on the way in which the Afro-Mexican black peoples were included in Article 2, Section C of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, the constitutional addition is analyzed based on the criteria of the principle of equality, issued in the Jurisprudence of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, to inquire about the effectiveness of its application to subjects of law.

Resumen: Se presenta una reflexión sobre la forma en que fueron incluidos los pueblos afromexicanos en el artículo 2o., apartado C, de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos; se analiza la adición constitucional a partir de los criterios del principio de igualdad, emitidos en la jurisprudencia de la Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación, para inquirir sobre la eficacia de su aplicación a los sujetos de derecho.

Abstract: This study addresses the issue of equity in health and justice from the perspective of public health bioethics, describing the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS), equating legitimate interests for essential goods, such as health. The conception of John Rawls’ theory of justice is “justice as fairness” and has a seventeenth century contractualism tenor. Although it was not conceived specifically for health and marked by the “difference principle”, it promoted, in the field of health care, the institution of health systems created on the basis of universal access and equity in the distribution of scarce resources. The principles of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) guarantee access to all levels of care, equality in health care, without distinctions or privileges of any kind, integrity in health care, free of charge, community participation and decentralization, regionalization and hierarchization of health actions and services, which gives the SUS a strong Rawlsian bias. The Brazilian model was built on the principle that health is a right of all and a duty of the State, therefore, it is based on the assumption of universal and equal access to health actions and services for its promotion and recovery.

Resumen: Este estudio aborda el tema equidad en salud y justicia desde la perspectiva de la bioética de la salud pública, describiendo el Sistema Único de Salud (SUS) brasileño, equiparando intereses legítimos por los bienes esenciales, como la salud. La concepción de la teoría de justicia de John Rawls es la “justicia como equidad” y tiene un tenor de contractualismo del siglo XVII. Aunque no fue concebida específicamente para la salud y marcada por el “principio de la diferencia”, impulsó, en el ámbito de la atención sanitaria, la institución de sistemas de salud creados sobre la base del acceso universal y la equidad en la distribución de recursos escasos. Los principios del Sistema Único de Salud (SUS) brasileño garantizan el acceso para todos los niveles asistenciales, igualdad en la atención a la salud, sin distinciones ni privilegios de ningún tipo, integridad en la asistencia a la salud, gratuidad, participación comunitaria y una descentralización, regionalización y jerarquización de las acciones y servicios de salud, lo que da al SUS un fuerte sesgo rawlsiano. El modelo brasileño se construyó sobre el principio de que la salud es un derecho de todos y un deber del Estado, por lo tanto, se basa en el supuesto del acceso universal e igualitario a las acciones y servicios de salud para su promoción y recuperación.

Resumo: Este estudo aborda a questão da equidade em saúde e da justiça sob a perspectiva da bioética da saúde pública, descrevendo o Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), equiparando interesses legítimos para bens essenciais, como a saúde. A concepção da teoria da justiça de John Rawls é “justiça como equidade” e tem um teor contratualista do século XVII. Embora não tenha sido concebida especificamente para a saúde e marcada pelo “princípio da diferença”, ela promoveu, no campo da assistência à saúde, a instituição de sistemas de saúde criados com base no acesso universal e na equidade na distribuição de recursos escassos. Os princípios do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) garantem o acesso a todos os níveis de atenção, a igualdade na assistência à saúde, sem distinções ou privilégios de qualquer espécie, a integralidade na assistência à saúde, a gratuidade, a participação da comunidade e a descentralização, regionalização e hierarquização das ações e serviços de saúde, o que confere ao SUS um forte viés rawlsiano. O modelo brasileiro foi construído com base no princípio de que a saúde é um direito de todos e um dever do Estado, portanto, parte do pressuposto do acesso universal e igualitário às ações e serviços de saúde para sua promoção e recuperação.

RESUMEN El objetivo de este artículo es analizar el principio de "igualdad de armas" durante el proceso penal, centrándose principalmente en el marco legal de Azerbaiyán. Los autores señalan esta institución como uno de los principios fundamentales de la justicia penal. En el artículo, por primera vez en Azerbaiyán y posiblemente en muchos otros países que son miembros de la familia del derecho romano-alemán, el principio de igualdad en el sentido procesal (igualdad de armas) se distingue y separa del sentido sustantivo (igualdad de armas). ante la ley y los tribunales). Considerando el ejemplo de Azerbaiyán, se descubrieron los aspectos procesales del principio de igualdad, y se expuso el tratamiento ideologizado de la igualdad en su comprensión procesal en los territorios soviéticos. Los autores subrayan una idea sobre la mejora de las garantías de igualdad y de las responsabilidades, incluso penales, por la violación de la misma en todas las etapas de la justicia penal. Se hicieron recomendaciones teniendo en cuenta las decisiones del Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos sobre procesos penales. Finalmente, los autores subrayan la adscripción del principio de igualdad a todas las esferas de la actividad estatal y social.

ABSTRACT The objective of this paper is to analyze the principle of "equality of arms" during criminal proceedings, focusing mainly in the legal framework of Azerbaijan. Authors indicate this institution as one of the fundamental principles of criminal justice. In the article, for the first time in Azerbaijan and possibly for many other countries which are members of the roman-german law family, the principle of equality in the procedural sense (equality of arms) is distinguished and separated from the substantive sense (equality before law and court). Considering the example of Azerbaijan, the procedural aspects of the principle of equality were discovered, and exposed of the ideologized treatment of equality in his procedural understanding at the Soviet territories. Authors underline an idea on improving of guarantees of equality and of responsibilities, including criminal, for violation of it on all stages of criminal justice. Recommendations were made considering decisions of the European Court of Human Rights on criminal proceedings. Finally, the authors underline adjoining of equality principle to all spheres of state and social activity.

RESUMEN La participación política de las mujeres ha sido una lucha constante tanto en Ecuador como en toda Latinoamérica, con el objetivo de lograr una verdadera representación política. El objetivo del estudio fue analizar el alcance del principio de paridad de género en la inscripción de candidaturas en procesos electores ecuatorianos. La investigación se adentró en el ámbito dogmático-jurídico y se consideró como una investigación exploratoria, en la cual los autores adoptaron un enfoque hermenéutico para interpretar la revisión bibliográfica realizada. Los resultados del estudio revelaron que la participación de las mujeres en la política ha sido una lucha constante tanto en Ecuador como en toda Latinoamérica, con el objetivo de alcanzar una representación política real. En este contexto, se destaca la aplicación del principio de igualdad, el cual se enfrenta a la triste realidad de una democracia disimulada. Aunque se reconoce que la presencia de las mujeres es un requisito en la conformación de los procesos electorales, su participación directa y representativa sigue siendo limitada. Se concluyó que para superar las barreras que enfrentan las mujeres en la política, es necesario construir un verdadero sistema político y cultural que fomente actitudes e ideologías basadas en el conocimiento y la participación política como valores fundamentales. Además, la estructura estatal debe promover el ejercicio de los derechos de participación a través de políticas públicas que incentiven a las mujeres a formar listas y encabezar candidaturas, especialmente a través de la educación.

ABSTRACT Women's political participation has been a constant struggle both in Ecuador and throughout Latin America, with the objective of achieving true political representation. The objective of the study was to analyze the scope of the principle of gender parity in the registration of candidacies in Ecuadorian electoral processes. The research went into the dogmatic-legal field and was considered as an exploratory research, in which the authors adopted a hermeneutic approach to interpret the bibliographic review carried out. The results of the study revealed that women's participation in politics has been a constant struggle both in Ecuador and throughout Latin America, with the aim of achieving real political representation. In this context, the application of the principle of equality stands out, which faces the sad reality of a disguised democracy. Although it is recognized that the presence of women is a requirement in the shaping of electoral processes, their direct and representative participation remains limited. It was concluded that in order to overcome the barriers faced by women in politics, it is necessary to build a true political and cultural system that fosters attitudes and ideologies based on knowledge and political participation as fundamental values. In addition, the state structure must promote the exercise of participation rights through public policies that encourage women to form lists and lead candidacies, especially through education.

Abstract This article examines transformations in legal discipline and jurisprudential understanding of the contours of the notion of gender in anti-discrimination law, in different countries. In order to discuss the relationship between the rights of women and non-binary people, courts in countries such as Denmark, Malta, Ireland and Norway begin to understand the gender category from an intimate and experienced experience based on individualized subjectivities, using of the sociological understanding of the Yogyakarta Principles. The understandings plastered and based on a cisheternal normative behavioral standardization are, therefore, revisited. With this, women's rights are reconciled with the rights of non-binary people and are analyzed from a different perspective, gaining a pluralized, sidereal projection and in greater consonance with the material aspect of the principle of equality. antidiscrimination anti discrimination law nonbinary non binary Denmark Malta subjectivities Principles therefore revisited this womens s perspective pluralized equality

Resumo O presente artigo examina alterações da disciplina legal e do entendimento jurisprudencial dos contornos da noção de gênero no direito antidiscriminatório, em países diversos. Para discutir a relação entre direitos das mulheres e das pessoas não binárias, tribunais de países como Dinamarca, Malta, Irlanda e Noruega passam a compreender a categoria gênero a partir de uma experiência de caráter íntimo e vivenciado a partir das subjetividades individualizadas, valendo-se da compreensão sociológica dos Princípios de Yogyakarta. Os entendimentos engessados e calcados em uma padronização comportamental cisheternormativa passam, assim, a ser revisitados. Com isso, os direitos das mulheres são conciliados aos direitos das pessoas não binárias e são analisados em perspectiva diversa, ganhando uma projeção pluralizada, sideral e em maior consonância com o aspecto material do princípio da igualdade. antidiscriminatório diversos Dinamarca Malta individualizadas valendose valendo se Yogyakarta assim revisitados isso diversa pluralizada igualdade

Abstract This article examines unjustified inequalities and discrimination in Law and institutional practices towards migrants, refugee and refugee claimants in Brazil. This is an exploratory study, supported by the analysis of specialized literature on legal equality and antidiscrimination law. It uses data and normative documents as empirical material in conjunction with the theoretical references. It questions the way in which the legal principle of equality is treated, in a broad and abstract way, to demonstrate that the mere prohibition of unfair distinction by the law is insufficient to counteract the maintenance of unjustified inequalities and discriminatory legal forms. The article seeks to offer a critical reflection on Law in terms of equality and the legal category of the abstract subject of law, and give it concreteness in Brazilian society. The main driver of this analysis is the denial of the exercise of citizenship as a result of being deprived of political rights and facing obstacles in having recognized their university education acquired in another country. The life of the migrant subject of law is thus intersected by direct and indirect discriminations by the Law and by the realms outside of it. migrants Brazil study references treated forms society country

Resumo Este artigo examina desigualdades injustificadas e discriminações encontráveis no Direito e nas práticas institucionais no que tange os migrantes, solicitantes de refúgio e refugiados, no Brasil. Trata-se de estudo exploratório, alicerçado na análise de bibliografia especializada a respeito da igualdade jurídica e do direito da antidiscriminação. Utiliza dados e documentos normativos como material empírico articulado com o referencial teórico. Problematiza a maneira pela qual o princípio jurídico da igualdade é tratado, de modo amplo e abstrato, para demonstrar que a simples proibição de distinção injusta pela lei é insuficiente no combate à manutenção de desigualdades injustificadas e de formas jurídicas discriminatórias. O artigo procura oferecer uma reflexão crítica do Direito quanto à igualdade e a categoria jurídica sujeito de direito em abstrato, atribuindo-lhe concretude na sociedade brasileira. O parâmetro desta análise se localiza na negação do exercício da cidadania decorrente da privação de direitos políticos e a dificuldade em ter reconhecida sua formação profissional universitária obtida em outro país. A vida do sujeito de direito migrante é, assim, atravessada por discriminações diretas e indiretas pelo Direito e fora dele. migrantes refugiados Brasil Tratase Trata exploratório antidiscriminação teórico tratado abstrato discriminatórias atribuindolhe atribuindo lhe brasileira país assim dele