ABSTRACT: In Peru, the plantain or banana is the most important cultivated fruit. In Tumbes 5,000 hectares are cultivated, part of these areas is found in the Zarumilla valley. One of the phytosanitary problems is the black sigatoka (Micosphaerella fijiensis Morelet), which decreases the leaf area of the plantations, with effects on yields. The objective was to evaluate the effect of three doses of Silicon on the yield and control parameters of the aforementioned disease in Musa spp., under field conditions, in said valley. The experimental design used was completely randomized blocks (BCA). According to the studies carried out, it was concluded that, in the performance parameters, silicon did not show an effect on the circumference of the pseudostem, leaf area, the number of hands per bunch and bunch weight, but there were effects on the number of leaves. at the time of flowering, at the time of harvest and in the weight of banana fingers. Regarding the effect of silicon in the control of "black sigatoka", it was possible to reduce the damage index by 17.66% in the S3 treatment (150 kg/ha) in comparison with the control (0 kg/ha) that was obtained 28.22%.

RESUMEN: En el Perú, el plátano o banano, es la fruta cultivada más importante. En Tumbes se cultivan 4 800 hectáreas, parte de esas áreas se encuentran en el valle de Zarumilla. Uno de los problemas fitosanitarios, es la sigatoka negra (Micosphaerella fijiensis Morelet), que disminuye el área foliar de las plantaciones, con efectos sobre los rendimientos. El objetivo fue evaluar el efecto de tres dosis de Silicio en los parámetros de rendimiento y control de la citada enfermedad en Musa spp., bajo condiciones de campo en dicho valle. El diseño experimental empleado fue bloques completamente al azar (BCA). De acuerdo con los estudios realizados se concluyó que, en los parámetros de rendimiento, el silicio no presentó efecto en la circunferencia del pseudotallo, área foliar, el número de manos por racimo y peso del racimo, pero si hubo efectos en el número de hojas al momento de la floración, al momento de la cosecha y en el peso de dedos del banano. En cuanto al efecto del silicio en el control de “sigatoka negra” se logró disminuir el índice de daño en un 17,66% en el tratamiento S3 (150 kg/ha) en comparación con el testigo (0 kg/ha) que se obtuvo 28,22%.

Resumen Objetivo. Desarrollar un Análisis de Ciclo de Vida (ACV), en granjas ganaderas con manejo rotacional del pastizal según composición botánica. Materiales y métodos: Se compararon granjas lecheras de Cotopaxi, a 2800- 3590 msnm. Granja 1: carga de 1 y 1,2 UA/ha, con 50% de Llantén (Plantago lanceolata), 50% de Trébol blanco (Trifolium repens). Granja 2: Carga de 1 y 1,2 UA/ha, 85 % de Ryegrass (Lolium perenne)-15% Trébol blanco (Trifolium repens). Granja 3: Carga de 1 y 2,1 UA/ha, 33 % de Ryegrass-33% Llantén-34% de Trébol blanco. Se usó fertilización, balanceado y animales Holstein tipos mestizo, neozelandés y norteamericano y reposo del pasto. Resultados: Hubo diferencias en uso de la tierra, coincidente en granjas 1 y 3, en mano de obra familiar. En la Granja 1, el reposo fue 15 a 28 días y FDN de 47,38 a 28,03 y 1,96 a 2,45 Mcal de energía y en 3, valores de Energía Metabolizable de 1,99 a 40 día y 2,11 a 35 días, menos leche/vaca que 3 y superior a 1. En producción de leche/ha, las granjas 1 y 3 superiores con 24 kg vs 19 kg. Esto fue positivo en ACV en esas granjas. Existió potencial para convertir más energía del sistema a productos. Conclusión: En el ACV, se encontró coincidencia con indicadores de sistemas especializados en producción de leche, balances de nitrógeno, energía y sus relaciones con el ambiente y emisiones, aunque se puede recuperar eficiencia con mejoras al manejo y sin insumos extras a la granja.

Abstract Aim. Develop a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) in livestock farms with rotational management of the pasture according to botanical composition. Materials and methods: Dairy farms from Cotopaxi, at 2800-3590 meters above sea level, were compared. Farm 1: load of 1 and 1.2 AU/ha, with 50% Plantain (Plantago lanceolata), 50% White Clover (Trifolium repens). Farm 2: Load of 1 and 1.2 AU/ha, 85% Ryegrass (Lolium perenne)-15% White clover (Trifolium repens). Farm 3: Load of 1 and 2.1 AU/ha, 33% Ryegrass-33% Plantain-34% White Clover. Fertilization, balancing and crossbred, New Zealand and North American type Holstein animals and grass rest were used. Results: There were differences in land use, coinciding in farms 1 and 3, in family labor. On Farm 1, rest was 15 to 28 days and NDF from 47.38 to 28.03 and 1.96 to 2.45 Mcal of energy and in 3, Metabolizable Energy values from 1.99 to 40 days and 2 .11 to 35 days, less milk/cow than 3 and higher than 1. In milk production/ha, farms 1 and 3 higher with 24 kg vs 19 kg. This was positive for ACV on those farms. There was potential to convert more of the system's energy into products. Conclusion: In the LCA, a coincidence was found with indicators of specialized systems in milk production, nitrogen balances, energy and their relationships with the environment and emissions, although efficiency can be recovered with improvements in management and without extra inputs to the farm.

ABSTRACT Introduction: the dental socket is a reversible and superficially located infection. It is considered a necrotic state of the alveolar process that, in the absence of blood vessels, does not allow the proliferation of capillaries or granulation tissue to organize the blood clot. It is one of the most frequent complications of tooth extraction. Objective: to determine the effectiveness of the greater plantain aqueous extract in the treatment of dry socket in the dental clinic of “Angel Ortiz Vázquez” policlinic 2. Methods: a comparative analytical study was carried out in the stomatology clinic of “Angel Ortiz Vázquez” polyclinic 2, in Manzanillo. The sample consisted of 60 patients diagnosed with dry dental socket. Two treatment groups of 30 patients each were formed, between the ages of 20 and 59 years, who were randomly assigned. Statistical measures such as absolute numbers and percentages were used in the analysis of the results, in addition to the hypothesis test for the difference between two sample proportions, with a significance level of 5 %. Results: among the most relevant results, it is observed that the dental region of the lower molars is the most affected, pain predominated as a clinical characteristic and the evolution of the disappearance of pain behaved between 72 and 96 hours, without significant statistical differences between both groups. Therefore, it is recommended to socialize the treatment with aqueous extract of greater plantain as another less expensive therapeutic alternative. Conclusions: there were no statistically significant differences between both treatment groups applied.

RESUMEN Introducción: la alveolitis es una infección reversible y localizada de forma superficial. Se considera un estado necrótico del proceso alveolar que ante la ausencia de vasos sanguíneos, no permite la proliferación de capilares ni tejido de granulación para organizar el coágulo sanguíneo. Objetivo: determinar la efectividad del extracto acuoso de llantén mayor en el tratamiento de la alveolitis seca en la Clínica Estomatológica del Policlínico II Ángel Ortiz Vázquez. Métodos: se realizó un estudio analítico comparativo en la Clínica Estomatológica del Policlínico II “Ángel Ortiz Vázquez”. La muestra estuvo constituida por 60 pacientes con diagnóstico de alveolitis dentaria seca. Se conformaron dos grupos de tratamiento de 30 pacientes cada uno, entre las edades de 20 a 59 años, que se asignaron de forma aleatoria; en el análisis de los resultados se emplearon medidas estadísticas como números absolutos y por cientos, además de la prueba de hipótesis para la diferencia de dos proporciones muestrales, con un nivel de significación del 5 %. Resultados: entre los resultados más relevantes se observa que es la región dentaria de molares inferiores la más afectada, predominó el dolor como característica clínica y la evolución de la desaparición del dolor se comportó entre las 72 y 96 horas, sin diferencias estadísticas significativas entre ambos grupos, por lo que se recomienda socializar el tratamiento con extracto acuoso de llantén mayor como otra alternativa terapéutica menos costosa. Conclusiones: no hubo diferencias estadísticas significativas entre ambos grupos de tratamientos aplicados.

In recent years, various methods for surface functionalization of magnetite nanoparticles with emerging modifications have been explored and reported. Green nano-chemistry aims to synthesize nanomaterials using bio-based resources, providing new materials for biological and environmental applications. Surface modification of magnetite nanoparticles using phytochemicals extracted from plants is a fundamental principle of green synthesis routes. Agricultural waste from different crops, such as plantain pseudostem, is of particular interest as a renewable resource due to its abundant availability, low toxicity, and economic feasibility. In this study, the juice extracted from plantain pseudostem was utilized for the phytofunctionalization of magnetite nanoparticles. Characterization techniques including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed the nanometric dimensions of the composite (size range of 12.6 ± 3.17 nm) and established its organic-inorganic nature. The superparamagnetic properties of the composite were also demonstrated. Moreover, the potential application of this nanohybrid in bioremediation for the immobilization of cadmium(II) and lead(II) showed promising results, highlighting its efficacy in managing water pollutants. years reported nanochemistry nano chemistry biobased bio based resources applications routes crops availability toxicity feasibility study TEM, TEM , (TEM) SEM, SEM (SEM) TGA, TGA (TGA) fouriertransform fourier transform FTIR (FTIR size 126 12 6 12. 317 3 17 3.1 nm organicinorganic organic inorganic nature demonstrated Moreover cadmiumII cadmium II cadmium(II leadII lead lead(II results pollutants (TEM (SEM (TGA 1 31 3.

Abstract Epidendrum falcatum Lindl. is an endemic orchid of Mexico, with a discontinuous distribution in wild populations growing on limestone rocks. Anthropogenic activities and the demand of collectors have caused a decrease in the wild populations of this species. The objective of this work was to know the effect of two organic compounds on the in vitro propagation of E. falcatum. Seeds from an indehiscent capsule were grown on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium modified to 50% of macronutrients and added with 100, 200 and 300 mL L-1 and g L-1 of coconut water or banana pulp. The organic compounds promoted germination of E. falcatum; the highest germination percentage was obtained with 100% coconut water. The control presented a greater number of leaves. However, treatments containing plantain significantly (p ≤ 0.01) stimulated the differentiation of the root system and aerial structures. This study represents a successful biotechnological method of in vitro propagation to obtain specimens of E. falcatum and thus counteract the exploitation of wild populations.

Resumen Epidendrum falcatum Lindl. es una orquídea endémica de México, con una distribución discontinua en poblaciones silvestres que crecen sobre rocas calizas. Las actividades antropogénicas y la demanda de coleccionistas han provocado una disminución en las poblaciones silvestres de esta especie. El objetivo de este trabajo fue conocer el efecto de dos compuestos orgánicos sobre la propagación in vitro de E. falcatum. Semillas provenientes de una cápsula indehiscente se cultivaron en medio Murashige y Skoog (MS) modificado a 50% de los macronutrientes y adicionado con 100, 200 y 300 mL L-1 y g L-1 de agua de coco o pulpa de plátano. Los compuestos orgánicos promovieron la germinación de E. falcatum; el mayor porcentaje de germinación se obtuvo con agua de coco a 100%. El control presentó mayor número de hojas. Sin embargo, los tratamientos que contenían plátano estimularon significativamente (p ≤ 0.05) la diferenciación del sistema radicular y de estructuras aéreas. Este estudio representa un método biotecnológico exitoso de propagación in vitro para la obtención de ejemplares de E. falcatum y así contrarrestar la explotación de las poblaciones silvestres.

ABSTRACT Ralstonia solanacearum race 2 (Rs) is the causal agent of Moko, one of the most limiting diseases of plantain. This study aimed to determine if the preventive application of salicylic acid (SA), silicon dioxide (Si), Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (Ba), and Bacillus subtilis (Bs) reduce the disease development and mitigate the plant physiological damage caused by Rs. For this, plantain plants cv. Hartón (Musa AAB) at nursery stage were established in a split-plot design and treated with biostimulants before the inoculation with Rs. Disease development and plant physiological variables were evaluated post-inoculation. Application of SA and Si on inoculated plants improved the relative water content, quantic yield of the photosystem II, electrons transport rate, gas exchange, and promoted dry biomass partition to the roots and a higher roots elongation. Plants treated with these biostimulants showed the lowest disease degree in comparison to inoculated control plants. Moreover, non-inoculated plants treated with Si and Bs significantly improved their photosynthetic capacity, biomass accumulation, and root elongation compared to non-inoculated control plants. Results suggest that preventive application of SA and Si reduces the Moko disease development whereas Si and Bs improve the physiological features of the plants. Rs (Rs SA, , (SA) Si, (Si) Ba, Ba (Ba) (Bs this cv Musa AAB splitplot split plot postinoculation. postinoculation post inoculation. post-inoculation content II rate exchange Moreover noninoculated non capacity accumulation (SA (Si (Ba

Abstract Introduction: Artificial fruit ripening agents such as ethanol, ethylene, ethephon, and calcium carbide (CaC2) is usually employed in stimulating the fruit ripening process. Currently, there is a paucity of information regarding the effects of various artificial fruits ripening methods on the health status of consumers. In this study, the physiological effects and possible health hazards associated with the consumption of plantain ripened by CaC2 and other non-chemical methods on the kidneys were investigated. Methods: Artificially ripened plantain was mixed with rat feed and fed to Wistar albino rats for four weeks, and the levels of plasma electrolytes (Na+, HCO3−, K+, and Cl−), urea, creatinine, as well as histological changes in the kidneys were determined. Results: Results indicated that rats fed with carbide-ripened plantain had a significantly high level of plasma bicarbonate (HCO3−) compared to control rats., but there was no difference in the level of plasma sodium (Na+). However, the levels of plasma potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl−) were significantly low in rats fed with CaC2-ripened plantain as compared to the control rats. Furthermore, the levels of urea and creatinine were significantly high in rats fed with CaC2-ripened plantain compared to the control animals. Histological analyses showed glomeruli atrophy and tubular necrosis in kidneys of rats fed with CaC2-ripened plantain, thereby further indicating toxicity to the kidneys. Conclusions: Histological evidence and alterations in the level of the plasma electrolytes, urea, and creatinine suggest that consumption of fruits ripened with calcium carbide may be harmful to the kidneys. Introduction ethanol ethylene ethephon CaC (CaC2 process Currently consumers study nonchemical non chemical investigated Methods weeks Na+, Na (Na+ HCO3 HCO HCO3− K K+ Cl−, Cl Cl− , Cl−) determined carbideripened (HCO3− Na+. Na+ . (Na+) However (K+ (Cl− CaC2ripened CaCripened Furthermore animals Conclusions (CaC (Na (HCO3 (K (Cl (HCO

Resumo Introdução: Agentes de maturação artificial como etanol, etileno, etefon e carbureto de cálcio (CaC2) são comumente empregados para estimular o amadurecimento de frutas. Atualmente, há uma escassez de informações a respeito dos efeitos de diversos métodos artificiais de maturação de frutas no estado de saúde dos consumidores. Neste estudo, investigaram-se os efeitos fisiológicos e possíveis riscos à saúde associados ao consumo de plátano maturado por CaC2 e outros métodos não químicos nos rins. Métodos: O plátano artificialmente amadurecido foi misturado com ração de rato e fornecido a ratos albinos Wistar por quatro semanas, e determinaram-se os níveis de eletrólitos plasmáticos (Na+, HCO3−, K+, e Cl−), ureia, creatinina, bem como alterações histológicas nos rins. Resultados: Ratos alimentados com plátano amadurecido com carbureto apresentaram um nível significativamente maior de bicarbonato plasmático (HCO3−) em comparação com ratos controle, mas não houve diferença no nível plasmático de sódio (Na+). Entretanto, os níveis plasmáticos de potássio (K+) e cloreto (Cl−) foram significativamente baixos em ratos alimentados com plátano maturado com CaC2 comparados com ratos controle. Além disso, os níveis de ureia e creatinina foram significativamente mais elevados em ratos alimentados com plátano amadurecido com CaC2, em comparação com os animais controle. Análises histológicas mostraram atrofia glomerular e necrose tubular em rins de ratos alimentados com plátano amadurecido com CaC2, indicando assim ainda mais toxicidade aos rins. Conclusões: Evidências histológicas e alterações nos eletrólitos plasmáticos, ureia e creatinina sugerem que o consumo de frutas amadurecidas com carbureto de cálcio pode ser prejudicial aos rins. Introdução etanol etileno CaC (CaC2 Atualmente consumidores estudo investigaramse investigaram se Métodos semanas determinaramse determinaram Na+, Na (Na+ HCO3 HCO HCO3− K K+ Cl−, Cl Cl− , Cl−) Resultados (HCO3− controle Na+. Na+ . (Na+) Entretanto (K+ (Cl− disso Conclusões (CaC (Na (HCO3 (K (Cl (HCO

Resumen Introducción. En Costa Rica el sector agrícola es uno de los más diversos, este presenta una alta variabilidad socioeconómica. El cantón de Talamanca alberga un fuerte rezago económico y requiere la generación de alternativas productivas. Objetivo. Caracterizar a nivel socioeconómico, productivo y comercial, los agricultores del Caribe Sur. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un estudio exploratorio y descriptivo en los distritos de Cahuita, Bratsi y Sixaola de Talamanca del 2019 al 2021. Se determinó un tamaño de muestra con un nivel de confianza del 95 %. Se diseñó un cuestionario estructurado con veintisiete preguntas para los agricultores, y ocho para responsables de instituciones gubernamentales en la zona. Se aplicó encuestas a 155 agricultores y 33 representantes de instituciones y organizaciones. Los agricultores se clasificaron mediante un análisis de conglomerados jerárquico y análisis discriminantes, se utilizaron variables socioeconómicas cuantitativas continuas. Resultados. Se identificaron cuatro tipos de agricultores, 1) agricultores de subsistencia (ATS, 7,10 %), 2) pequeños (ATP, 23,23 %), 3) medios (ATM, 41,29 %) y 4) grandes (ATG, 28,39 %), con diferencias estadísticas (p<0,05, χ2<0,05) entre sus variables de estudio. Sobre la agroindustria se identificó que el 77,91 % no industrializaron sus productos, por falta de mercado (14,68 %) y falta de recursos (14,37 %) como principales razones. Conclusión. La actividad agrícola se caracterizó por una agricultura familiar. Se producen plátano, cacao y banano; no obstante, la diversidad de cultivos y frutales representa un alto potencial para el desarrollo de la agroindustria.

Abstract Introduction. In Costa Rica, the agricultural sector is one of the most diverse, it presents, a high socioeconomic variability. The canton of Talamanca harbors a strong economic lag and it is necessary the generation of productive alternatives. Objective. To characterize the socioeconomic, productive, and commercial level of the South Caribbean farmers. Materials and methods. An exploratory and descriptive study was carried out in the districts of Cahuita, Bratsi, and Sixaola of Talamanca from 2019 to 2021. A sample size was determined with a confidence level of 95%. A structured questionnaire with twenty-seven questions was designed for farmers, and eight for heads of government institutions in the area. Surveys were applied to 155 farmers and 33 representatives of institutions and organizations. Farmers were classified through hierarchical cluster analysis and discriminant analysis, continuous quantitative socioeconomic variables were used. Results. Four types of farmers were identified, 1) subsistence farmers (ATS, 7.10 %), 2) small (ATP, 23.23 %), 3) medium (ATM, 41.29 %), and 4) large (ATG, 28.39 %), with significant statistical differences (p<0.05, χ2<0.05) between their study variables. Regarding agro-industry, it was identified that 77.91 % did not industrialize their products, due to lack of market (14.68 %) and lack of resources (14.37 %) as the main reasons. Conclusion. The agricultural activity is characterized by family farming. Plantain, cocoa, and bananas are produced; however, the diversity of crops and fruit trees represents a high potential for the development of agro-industry.

Resumen Introducción: El plátano es un alimento para millones de personas en países en desarrollo, y en Costa Rica la producción se localiza principalmente en la región Caribe, con 3 354 fincas de baja productividad y poca adopción tecnológica. A pesar de ser un cultivo presente en el 55,8% de las fincas pequeñas en la provincia de Limón, son escasos los estudios sobre condiciones de fincas y las personas que cultivan plátano. Objetivo: Elaborar una tipología de las fincas productoras de plátano de la región Caribe de Costa Rica según productividad Métodos: Se realizaron 342 encuestas a finqueros en seis cantones, que corresponden al 28% de las fincas plataneras afectadas por la inundación del 2015. Resultados: Se clasificaron tres tipos de fincas, la tipo 1 son las más eficientes en el uso de insumos, en rentabilidad y en productividad con 49 TM/ha/año, pero solo representan el 10% del total de fincas. Estas fincas tienen 0,8 ha de cultivo de plátano, con densidades de siembra mayores a 2 000plantas/ha, usan cormos de 500 a 800g, aplican sulfato de amonio, apuntalan las plantas, embolsan los racimos, renuevan las plantaciones cada 1 a 2 años y las personas que atienden estas plantaciones son menores de 50 años. Por otro lado, el 66% de las fincas productoras se ubican en el tipo 3 cuya producción es de 18TM/ha/año. Conclusión: Las fincas de los seis cantones presentan significativas diferencias, en especial en área cultivada y productividad, siendo las fincas menores a 1ha los más eficientes y de mayor rentabilidad, y las de Alta Talamanca las más biodiversas con el 79% de las fincas manejadas como Sistemas agroforestales. El cultivo del plátano es un sistema de producción vulnerable, principalmente por el manejo agronómico, los escasos controles fitosanitarios y la débil capacitación que reciben las personas agricultoras.

Abstract Introduction: Plantain is a food for millions of people in developing countries, and in Costa Rica its production is mainly located in the Caribbean region, with 3 354 farms, with low productivity and little technological adoption. Despite being a crop present in 56% of the small farms in the Limon's province, there are few studies on the conditions of the farms and the people who grow plantain. Objective: To prepare a typology of plantain farms in the Caribbean region of Costa Rica according to productivity. Methods: 342 surveys were applied to farmers in six counties, corresponding to 28% of the plantain farms affected by the flooding of 2015. Results: Three types of farms were found, type 1 are the most efficient due the use of supplies and profitability, they represented 10% of the total farms and had the highest annual yields 49MT/ha). These farms have 0,8 ha of plantain crops, with densities greater than 2 000plants/ha, use corms of 500 to 800g, apply ammonium sulfate, shore-up the plants, bag the bunches, renew the plantations every 1 to 2 years and the people who attend these plantations are under 50 years of age. On the other hand, 66% of farms are type 3, producing 18MT/ha/year. Conclusion: The farms of the six counties have significant differences, especially in cultivated area and productivity, with farms smaller than 1ha being the most efficient and most profitable, and those of Alta Talamanca being the most biodiverse with 79% managed under agroforestry systems. Finally, plantain is a vulnerable production system, mainly due to agronomic management, the few phytosanitary controls and the weak training received by farmers.

Resumen Las musáceas son muy importantes para la alimentación a escala mundial. En el Ecuador, estas ocupan el 20,57 % de la superficie plantada, siendo el cantón El Carmen uno de los principales sitios dedicados a esta explotación. Por otra parte, Ralstonia solanacearum es la causante de la enfermedad conocida como moko de plátano, la cual puede desaparecer el 100 % de una plantación. Por ello se realizó una caracterización morfológica y bioquímica de R. solanacearum raza 2, bacteria patógena en cultivos de banano y plátano en El Carmen, Manabí, Ecuador, con la finalidad de identificar y determinar las características, que confirmen la presencia del patógeno etiológico de la enfermedad presente en la mencionada zona. El análisis morfológico y bioquímico se realizó en laboratorio, las muestras fueron tomadas de plantaciones de plátano y banano (suelo y pseudotallo) con síntomas del moko. Como resultado, se identificó virulencia en la mitad de las muestras, se confirmó que la bacteria es Gram negativa, en forma de bacilo, positiva a catalasa, indol negativa, con carácter oxidativo y fermentativo de lactosa y glucosa, sin presencia de ácido sulfhídrico, incapaz de hidrolizar almidón, en cultivo in vitro; se confirmó que la temperatura de 4 °C y pH de 4,5 inhiben el aumento de sus poblaciones, sin embargo, los rangos de 25 y 37 °C con pH de 6,5 a 8,5 no resultaron ser restrictivos para su propagación; por ello, se afirma que El Carmen cumple con los estándares requeridos para que el patógeno prolifere de manera óptima.

Abstract The musaceae are very important for food worldwide, in Ecuador they occupy 20,57% of the planted area, being the canton El Carmen one of the main sites dedicated to this exploitation. On the other hand, Ralstonia solanacearum, is the cause of the moko disease in platain, which can wipe out 100% of a plantation. Therefore, a morphological and biochemical characterization of R. solanacearum Race 2, pathogenic bacterium in banana and plantain crops in El Carmen, Manabí, Ecuador, was carried out in order to identify and determine the characteristics that confirm the presence of the etiological pathogen of the disease present in the mentioned area. The morphological and biochemical analysis was carried out at laboratory level; the samples were taken from plantain and banana plantations (soil and pseudo-stem), with symptoms of moko disease. As a result, virulence was identified in half of the samples. It was also confirmed that the bacterium is Gram negative, in its bacillus form, catalase positive, indole negative, with an oxidative and fermentative character of lactose and glucose, without presence of hydrogen sulfide, unable to hydrolyze starch in vitro culture. It was confirmed that the temperature of 4°C and pH of 4,5 inhibit the increase of its populations; however, the ranges of 25 and 37°C with pH of 6,5 to 8,5 did not prove to be restrictive for its propagation; therefore, it is affirmed that El Carmen meets the required standards for the t pathogen o proliferate optimally.

RESUMEN Este estudio evalúa el impacto del crédito agrícola sobre la productividad de Musáceas (plátano y banano) en productores del Valle del Cauca (Colombia) utilizando los datos del Censo Nacional Agropecuario del 2014. Adicionalmente, se evaluó el efecto del crédito en dos índices de productividad (PI1 y PI2), PI1 medido en toneladas de producción por hectárea y PI2 en toneladas de producción por empleado. Para evaluar dicho impacto se estimó el contrafactual sin tratamiento utilizando la información de aquellos agricultores que recibieron el crédito y agricultores similares que no. Por lo tanto, para controlar el sesgo de selección, derivado de que los créditos no se otorgan aleatoriamente, este trabajo utilizó la metodología del Propensity Score Matching (PSM) aplicando el algoritmo de emparejamiento 4-nearest neighbor. En general, para los productores de banano, los resultados sugieren que acceder a un crédito agrícola tiene efectos positivos y significativos con un aumento de la productividad por hectárea (PI1) del 8,4%; por otra parte, para PI2 el resultado fue estadísticamente no significativo, sin embargo, puede ser indicador de que el agricultor no usó eficientemente el recurso humano para lograr el incremento obtenido en PI1. Finalmente, este estudio sugiere que el acceso al crédito agrícola puede no ser decisivo para aumentar la productividad del cultivo de plátano, dado el efecto indeterminado en los dos índices evaluados.

ABSTRACT This study evaluates the impact of agricultural credit on productivity of Musaceae (banana and plantain) in farmers from Valle del Cauca (Colombia) using data from National Agricultural Census of 2014. Additionally, the effect of credit on two productivity indices (PI1 y PI2) was evaluated, PI1 measured in tons of production per hectare and PI2 in ton of production per employee. To evaluate this impact, the counterfactual without treatment was estimated using the information of those farmers who obtained a credit and similar farmers who did not. Therefore, to control the selection bias, derived from the fact that the credits are not awarded randomly, this study uses the Propensity Score Matching (PSM) methodology applying the 4-nearest neighbor matching algorithm. In general, for banana producers, the results suggest that access to agricultural credit has positive and significant effects with an increase in productivity per hectare (PI1) of 8.4%; on the other hand, for PI2 the result was not statistically significant, however, it may be an indicator that the farmer is not using human resources efficiently to achieve the increase obtained in PI1 . Finally, this study suggests that access to agricultural credit may not be decisive in increasing the productivity of the plantain crop, given that the effect on the two indices evaluated was indeterminate.

Resumen Introducción.Las musáceas comestibles son consideradas cultivos estratégicos en la seguridad alimentaria de muchos países e importantes en su economía y dieta. No obstante, se encuentran amenazadas por diversos organismos fitopatógenos. Objetivo. Reseñar los rasgos significativos de la enfermedad del racimo cogolloso o Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) causada por un virus de la familia Nanoviridae, género Babuvirus, que representa una amenaza potencial para la producción de musáseas en América Latina y el Caribe (ALC). Desarrollo. Las musáceas se ubican entre los principales alimentos y frutas producidas en el mundo (entre los seis más importantes), su comercialización las define como las frutas más exportadas. Se estima que 47 % de los patógenos que originan enfermedades emergentes y re-emergentes de importancia mundial, son virus. Entre ellos, el BBTV constituye la enfermedad viral más dañina para las musáseas, con potencial impacto económico; además, limita el intercambio internacional del germoplasma. Es poco probable que este patógeno se transmita por implementos agrícolas, debido que no está presente en el suelo. Su diseminación solo ocurre a través de: a) insecto vector Pentalonia nigronervosa, que lo propaga a corta distancia, y b) por material de propagación infectado que puede distribuirlo entre continentes, con efecto devastador en todos los países donde ha sido reportada. Conclusiones. La introducción de nuevos materiales (clones) resistentes a Foc R4T (enfermedad presente en América) sin la debida supervisión y medidas cuarentenarias, pueden propiciar la manipulación de plantas in vitro portadoras del virus, que al quedar expuestas a la acción del insecto vector presente en ALC, condicionan la entrada y propagación del BBTV en esta región (principal de países exportadores), cuya presencia podría ser catastrófica y ocasionar pérdidas económicas, similares a las ocurridas en países productores que han sido afectados.

Abstract Introduction. Edible musaceae are considered strategic crops in the food security of many countries, and important in their economy and diet. However, they are threatened by various phytopathogenic organisms. Objective. To outline the significant features of Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) caused by a virus of the family Nanoviridae, genus Babuvirus, which represents a potential threat to the musaseae production in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Development. Musaceae are among the main foods and fruits produced in the world (among the six most important), and their commercialization defines them as the most exported fruits. It is estimated that 47 % of the pathogens that originate emerging and re-emerging diseases of global importance are viruses. Among them, BBTV is the most damaging viral disease for musaceae, with potential economic impact, in addition, it limits the international exchange of germplasm. This systemic pathogen is unlikely to be transmitted by agricultural implements, since it is not present in the soil. Its dissemination only occurs through: a) Insect vector Pentalonia nigronervosa, which spreads it over short distance, and b) by infected propagation material that can distribute it between continents, with devastating effects in all the countries where it has been reported. Conclusions. The introduction of new materials (clones) resistant to Foc TR4 (disease present in America) without proper supervision and quarantine measures, can promote the manipulation of in vitro plants carring the virus, which, when exposed to the action of the insect vector present in LAC, condition the entry and spread of the BBTV in this region (main of exporting countries), whose presence could be catastrophic and cause economic losses, similar to those that have occurred in producing countries that have been affected.

Abstract There are several investigations on the use of food waste to remove contaminants by adsorption. However, a simple route, without chemical activation reagents, is needed for the development of adsorbents. The aim of this study was to develop an adsorbent from plantain peel, using a simple procedure, and to evaluate its capacity to remove phosphate from aqueous solutions at phosphate concentrations similar to those of water sources at risk of eutrophication (0.30 mg/L). The simple pyrolysis method was used in an electric muffle, without chemical activation, using plantain peel as precursor. The variables evaluated were pyrolysis temperature and solution pH. The specific surface area BET, zero loading point of the developed treatments, was determined. Phosphate adsorption was studied in a batch experiment in the presence of calcium ions in solution. Phosphate adsorption was favorable at all three pyrolysis temperature levels (500, 600 and 700 °C) and two solution pH levels (pH 7 and 10). the pseudo-second order kinetic model was the best fit for the experimental data to describe the adsorption mechanism. The best fit to the experimental equilibrium data was obtained with the Langmuir isotherm model. It was found that a 1 g/L dose of the adsorbent was able to reduce 92% of phosphate in water, with a removal capacity 0.14 mg/g at pH 10 and pyrolysis temperature of 700 °C. This study lays the groundwork for future research on the use of this type of adsorbent in water treatment to facilitate access to clean water for rural populations.

Resumo Introdução: Agentes de maturação artificial como etanol, etileno, etefon e carbureto de cálcio (CaC2) são comumente empregados para estimular o amadurecimento de frutas. Atualmente, há uma escassez de informações a respeito dos efeitos de diversos métodos artificiais de maturação de frutas no estado de saúde dos consumidores. Neste estudo, investigaram-se os efeitos fisiológicos e possíveis riscos à saúde associados ao consumo de plátano maturado por CaC2 e outros métodos não químicos nos rins. Métodos: O plátano artificialmente amadurecido foi misturado com ração de rato e fornecido a ratos albinos Wistar por quatro semanas, e determinaram-se os níveis de eletrólitos plasmáticos (Na+, HCO3−, K+, e Cl−), ureia, creatinina, bem como alterações histológicas nos rins. Resultados: Ratos alimentados com plátano amadurecido com carbureto apresentaram um nível significativamente maior de bicarbonato plasmático (HCO3−) em comparação com ratos controle, mas não houve diferença no nível plasmático de sódio (Na+). Entretanto, os níveis plasmáticos de potássio (K+) e cloreto (Cl−) foram significativamente baixos em ratos alimentados com plátano maturado com CaC2 comparados com ratos controle. Além disso, os níveis de ureia e creatinina foram significativamente mais elevados em ratos alimentados com plátano amadurecido com CaC2, em comparação com os animais controle. Análises histológicas mostraram atrofia glomerular e necrose tubular em rins de ratos alimentados com plátano amadurecido com CaC2, indicando assim ainda mais toxicidade aos rins. Conclusões: Evidências histológicas e alterações nos eletrólitos plasmáticos, ureia e creatinina sugerem que o consumo de frutas amadurecidas com carbureto de cálcio pode ser prejudicial aos rins.

Abstract Introduction: Artificial fruit ripening agents such as ethanol, ethylene, ethephon, and calcium carbide (CaC2) is usually employed in stimulating the fruit ripening process. Currently, there is a paucity of information regarding the effects of various artificial fruits ripening methods on the health status of consumers. In this study, the physiological effects and possible health hazards associated with the consumption of plantain ripened by CaC2 and other non-chemical methods on the kidneys were investigated. Methods: Artificially ripened plantain was mixed with rat feed and fed to Wistar albino rats for four weeks, and the levels of plasma electrolytes (Na+, HCO3−, K+, and Cl−), urea, creatinine, as well as histological changes in the kidneys were determined. Results: Results indicated that rats fed with carbide-ripened plantain had a significantly high level of plasma bicarbonate (HCO3−) compared to control rats., but there was no difference in the level of plasma sodium (Na+). However, the levels of plasma potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl−) were significantly low in rats fed with CaC2-ripened plantain as compared to the control rats. Furthermore, the levels of urea and creatinine were significantly high in rats fed with CaC2-ripened plantain compared to the control animals. Histological analyses showed glomeruli atrophy and tubular necrosis in kidneys of rats fed with CaC2-ripened plantain, thereby further indicating toxicity to the kidneys. Conclusions: Histological evidence and alterations in the level of the plasma electrolytes, urea, and creatinine suggest that consumption of fruits ripened with calcium carbide may be harmful to the kidneys.

Resumen Bajo condiciones de campo se evaluó la incidencia y severidad de Sigatoka Negra (SN) en plátano ‵Macho′, asperjado con la mezcla del extracto alcohólico de clavo (36 µgclavo mL-1) - ajo (150 µgajo mL-1). Tres tratamientos fueron establecidos: aplicación cada 7 días (T1), cada 14 días (T2) y sin mezcla o control (T3). Las plantas utilizadas tenían 3 meses de edad y el trabajo concluyó, posteriormente, a los 238 días. La incidencia y severidad de la SN, el número total de hojas, la hoja más joven sin SN y el tiempo a florecimiento se determinaron cada 14 día. En relación al T3, las plantas del T1 tuvieron 20.5 y 25.3% menos incidencia y severidad de SN y, las del T2, 11.4 y 22.6% menos. El número de hojas totales fue 9.3, 8.8 y 8.5 y la hoja más joven con SN fue 7.2, 6.4 y 5.6 para T1, T2 y T3, respectivamente. Los días a florecimiento fueron 140 para T1 y 182 para T2. Los resultados muestran el potencial de la mezcla de los extractos alcohólicos de ajo y clavo como alternativa para el control de la SN.

Abstract The incidence and severity of the Black Sigatoka (BS) was assessed in plantain plants “Macho” variety, sprayed with a mixture of alcoholic extracts of clove (36 µgclove mL-1) and garlic (150 µggarlic mL-1) under field conditions. Three treatments were evaluated: foliar application every 7 days (T1), every 14 days (T2) and without extracts or control (T3). Initially, the experimental plants were 3 months-old and the experiment concluded 238 days later. Every 14 days the incidence and severity of BS, the total number of leaves, the youngest leaf without symptoms and the time to flowering were measured. In relation to the plants of T3, the weighted average incidence and severity of BS were lower by 20.5 and 25.3% for T1 and 11.4 and 22.6% for T2, respectively. The average of total leaves was, 9.3, 8.8 and 8.5 and the youngest leaf with disease symptoms were 7.2, 6.4 and 5.6 for T1, T2 and T3, respectively. The days to flowering after the beginning of the experiment were 140 for T1 and 182 for T2. The results show the potential of using the alcoholic extracts of garlic and clove as an alternative for the control of the BS.