Abstract Tree diseases contribute to significant economic and food losses in the agricultural sector. Early detection of phytosanitary problems in trees with non-destructive methods is essential to guarantee sustainable orange production. This study presents the findings of a designed methodology conducted to identify diseased orange trees in an orchard situated in the citrus belt of Mexico, specifically in the Rioverde region of San Luis Potosi. To accomplish this, we captured images using a multispectral camera with very high spatial resolution, which was mounted on an unmanned aerial vehicle. These images were used to construct a georeferenced orthomosaic of the orchard. Six thematic classes were established to distinguish various health levels among the trees. We employed several supervised classification algorithms at the pixel level, including Random Forest (RF), K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Maximum Likelihood (ML). Considering the classification accuracy achieved by each algorithm, they can be ranked as follows: Maximum Likelihood (ML) with 88.10%, Support Vector Machine (SVM) with 77.38%, Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) with 76.19%, K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) with 64.68%, and Random Forest (RF) with 61.90%. These results successfully identified the phytosanitary status of all the trees in the orchard with an acceptable level of accuracy, providing valuable management information for the grower.

Resumen Las enfermedades de los árboles contribuyen a importantes pérdidas económicas y de alimentos en el sector agrícola. La detección temprana de problemas fitosanitarios en árboles con métodos no destructivos resulta fundamental para garantizar la producción sostenible de naranja. Este trabajo presenta los resultados de una metodología diseñada para la identificación de árboles de naranja enfermos en una huerta ubicada en el cinturón citrícola de México, particularmente en la región de Rioverde, San Luis Potosí. Para ello, se tomaron imágenes con una cámara multiespectral de muy alta resolución espacial instalada en un vehículo aéreo no tripulado con las que se construyó un ortomosaico georreferenciado. Se emplearon seis clases temáticas para identificar los diferentes niveles de sanidad. Se utilizaron diferentes algoritmos de clasificación supervisada a nivel píxel que incluyen Random Forest (RF), K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM), Support Vector Machine (SVM), y Maximum Likelihood (ML). Considerando la exactitud de clasificación obtenida por cada uno de los algoritmos, se pueden ordenar de la siguiente manera: Maximum Likelihood (ML) con un 88,10%, Support Vector Machine (SVM) con un 77,38%, Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) con un 76,19%, K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) con un 64,68% y Random Forest (RF) con un 61,90%. Los resultados permitieron identificar el estado fitosanitario de todos los árboles de la huerta, con una exactitud aceptable y representan información valiosa de manejo para el productor.

Phlyctinus is an endemic weevil genus of the Cape Floristic Region that comprises eight to ten species, previously classified under the monotypic P. callosus sensu lato concept. Two species of this genus, Phlyctinus callosus and P. xerophilus, are of economic concern to the deciduous fruit and grapevine industry in the Western Cape province of South Africa, causing primary damages and being of phytosanitary concern at the adult stage. The taxonomic revision conducted in 2020 raised doubts whether one of the two species was a newly emerging pest and/or what species was considered in studies before the clarification of species boundaries. Also unclear is whether these species can be controlled similarly using current control measures. The aim of this study therefore is to review the pest status of the two species over time based on museum records, field collections and historical publications, and to clarify how control measure(s) are impacted. We infer that neither species appear to be emerging pests in the region, both being of agricultural significance for at least 80 years. Phlyctinus callosus is mostly distributed along the southern coast, while P. xerophilus is distributed in inland valleys. The two species show similar biology, physiology and ecology in agro-ecosystems, and can be excluded from the host plant canopy using stem-barriers, adults being flightless. As such, it is shown that the naming of P. xerophilus as a pest is mainly a taxonomical clarification within a pre-existing species complex.

Resumen El uso de vehículos aéreos no tripulados (VANTs) en el monitoreo de plantaciones forestales permite obtener información precisa sobre distintos atributos de los árboles. Este trabajo presenta una revisión crítica del uso potencial de los VANTs para el monitoreo del estado nutricional y fitosanitario de plantaciones forestales. Se realizó una búsqueda bibliográfica en las plataformas Google Scholar, Scopus y Science Direct, utilizando palabras claves como estrés, nutrición y forestería. Se encontraron estudios principalmente en el género Pinus y en el continente asiático, que utilizan drones de ala fija y rotatoria para el monitoreo de plagas y enfermedades. Las experiencias en el monitoreo de deficiencias nutricionales son pocas. El uso futuro de VANTs para el monitoreo de estreses en cultivos forestales parece ir dirigido a la automatización en la toma de datos y a combinación de estos con algoritmos de inteligencia artificial.

Abstract The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to monitor forest plantations allows obtaining precise information on different tree attributes. This paper presents a critical review of the potential use of UAVs for monitoring the nutritional and phytosanitary status of forest plantations. A bibliographic search was carried out on the Google Scholar, Scopus, and Science Direct platforms, using keywords such as stress, nutrition, and forestry. Studies were found mainly on the genus Pinus and the Asian continent which use fixed and rotary wing drones to monitor pests and diseases. Experiences in monitoring nutritional deficiencies are few. The future use of UAVs for stress monitoring in forest crops seems to be aimed at automating data collection and combining these with artificial intelligence algorithms.

Abstract The National Forest Financing Fund (FONAFIFO) contemplates a payment method for environmental services (PES) that seeks to recover forest cover. Within this modality are agroforestry systems (AFS) which objective is to combine trees with agricultural production systems. However, the composition and status of these systems is currently unknown. In order to characterize the SAFs subjected to the PSA in Costa Rica, an analysis of the projects formalized by FONAFIFO between 2011 and 2018 was carried out in the regional offices San Carlos, San José Oriental and San José Occidental. Technical studies of 527 projects and the respective certified reports were reviewed. Project identification, type of regency, planted area, tree species and number of trees per species, associated agricultural component, agroforestry technology, and reported management were recorded. The information was tabulated and analyzed using descriptive statistics. A predominance of agroforestry systems in coffee (43 %) associated mainly with the tree species Erythrina sp. as a multi-use tree concentrated in the Los Santos and Pérez Zeledón area. Block systems were found in second place (32 %), predominating teak (Tectona grandis), cedar (Cedrela odorata) and melina (Gmelina arborea) located in the North Zone and Central Pacific. A few reports of silvicultural practices and phytosanitary status were found. Weed control was the most reported practice. It is necessary to improve the monitoring and recording of information on the projects in order to have evidence of silvicultural management.

Resumen El Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (FONAFIFO) contempla una modalidad de pago por servicios ambientales (PSA) que busca la recuperación de la cobertura forestal. Dentro de esta modalidad se encuentran los sistemas agroforestales (SAF) cuyo objetivo es combinar árboles con sistemas de producción agrícolas. Sin embargo, actualmente se desconoce la composición y estado de estos sistemas. Con el objetivo de caracterizar los SAF sometidos al PSA en Costa Rica, se realizó un análisis de los proyectos formalizados por FONAFIFO entre 2011 y 2018 en las oficinas regionales San Carlos, San José Oriental y San José Occidental. Se revisaron los estudios técnicos de 527 proyectos y los respectivos informes certificados. Se registró la identificación del proyecto, tipo de regencia, área sembrada, especies forestales y número de árboles por especie, componente agrícola asociado, tecnología agroforestal, y manejo reportado. La información fue tabulada y sometida a análisis estadístico descriptivo. Se encontró un predominio de sistemas agroforestales en café (43 %) asociados principalmente a Erythrina sp. como árbol de uso múltiple concentrados en la Zona de Los Santos y Pérez Zeledón. Los sistemas en bloque se encontraron en segundo lugar (32 %), predominando teca (Tectona grandis), cedro (Cedrela odorata) y melina (Gmelina arborea) ubicados en la Zona Norte y Pacífico Central. Se encontraron pocos reportes de prácticas silviculturales y de estado fitosanitario. El control de arvenses fue la práctica más reportada. Es necesario mejorar el monitoreo y registro de información de los proyectos que permita tener evidencia del manejo silvicultural dado.

Abstract The objective of this review is to present the epidemiological status of Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands in interaction with Persea americana Mill. and the authorized phytosanitary management alternatives. The trial was conducted based on reports from official and scientific authorities on plant health, of epidemiological outbreaks of the avocado sadness disease caused by P. cinnamomi. Worldwide, the loss of avocado trees was exponential, due to the disease caused by the oomycete P. cinnamomi, which presented epidemiological behavior at the national and international levels. In 1942, in Puerto Rico, the pathogen was isolated for the first time by Tucker in avocado plants. In Mexico, the first epidemiological outbreak due to this pathogen was in 1952, with losses of 90% of avocado production, the distribution of the disease spread to different parts of the world. In favorable conditions it affects the root and base of the crown, invades vascular bundles and takes the nutrients for its development. Pathogenesis is influenced by temperature, precipitation, moisture, pH, nutrient availability, and soil texture. In the field, the biological effectiveness of the molecules, for the control of the oomycete, may present limitations that impact the microbiota, flora and fauna; in addition, the effects that are reflected in the quality and safety of fruits due to the accumulation of synthetic pesticide molecules. Given the phytosanitary situation expressed by avocado production, it is necessary to implement sustainable management alternatives, such as endotherapy, through the injection of selective products in specific doses, which control the disease without affecting the quality and safety of the fruit.

Resumen El objetivo de la presente revisión es dar a conocer el estatus epidemiológico de Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands en interacción con Persea americana Mill. y las alternativas de manejo fitosanitario autorizadas. El ensayo se realizó con base en reportes de instancias oficiales y científicas en materia de sanidad vegetal, de brotes epidemiológicos de la enfermedad tristeza del aguacate causada por P. cinnamomi. A nivel mundial, la pérdida de árboles de aguacate fue exponencial, debido a la enfermedad causada por el oomiceto P. cinnamomi quien presentó comportamiento epidemiológico a nivel nacional e internacional. En 1942, en Puerto Rico el patógeno fue aislado por primera vez por Tucker en plantas de aguacate. En México, el primer brote epidemiológico por este patógeno fue en 1952, con pérdidas de 90% de la producción de aguacate, la distribución de la enfermedad se expandió a diferentes partes del mundo. En condiciones favorables afecta la raíz y base de la corona, invade haces vasculares y toma los nutrientes para su desarrollo. La patogénesis es influenciada por la temperatura, precipitación, humedad, pH, disponibilidad de nutrientes y textura del suelo. En campo, la efectividad biológica de las moléculas, para el control del oomiceto, puede presentar limitantes que impactan en la microbiota, flora y fauna; además, de los efectos que se reflejan en la calidad e inocuidad de frutos por la acumulación de moléculas de plaguicidas sintéticos. Dada la situación fitosanitaria que expresa la producción de aguacate es necesario implementar alternativas de manejo sustentable, como la endoterapia, a través de la inyección de productos selectivos en dosis específicas, que controlen a la enfermedad sin afectar la calidad e inocuidad del fruto.

Resumen Introducción. El uso de la teledetección para identificar los diferentes estados de la salud de los cultivos, así como su relación con el rendimiento, constituye una herramienta muy importante en la implementación de la Agricultura de Precisión. Objetivo. Relacionar el estado fitosanitario, obtenido por expertos mediante la evaluación visual, de plantas de palma de aceite (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) afectadas por el síndrome de Flecha Seca (SFS), con los índices de vegetación calculados a partir de imágenes multiespectrales obtenidas con un vehículo aéreo no tripulado (VANT). Materiales y métodos. El estudio se desarrolló en una plantación de cuatro hectáreas con palma de aceite de tres años de trasplantada, propiedad de CoopeCalifornia R.L. ubicada en Parrita, Costa Rica. Se realizaron cuatro evaluaciones visuales del estado del SFS de diciembre de 2014 a febrero de 2017. Con estas evaluaciones se obtuvo la evolución espacio-temporal de la incidencia de la SFS durante veintiséis meses. En la última evaluación se realizó un vuelo con un VANT que portaba una cámara multiespectral Parrot Sequoia, con la cual se calcularon los índices de vegetación que luego fueron relacionados con el estado de SFS de las plantas. Resultados. Se encontró una alta variabilidad espacial y temporal del SFS durante todas las evaluaciones visuales. También se logró encontrar una fuerte relación entre los datos de las evaluaciones obtenidas en campo con los datos generados a partir de sensores remotos. El índice de vegetación Simple Ratio (SR) mostró diferencias significativas entre las plantas clasificadas como sanas y las plantas clasificadas con SFS, con grados 2 y 3 de severidad. Conclusiones. Es posible relacionar datos de campo, obtenidos mediante criterio experto, con información multiespectral de alta resolución espacial para identificar el SFS en plantaciones comerciales de palma aceitera.

Abstract Introduction. The use of remote sensing to identify the different plant health conditions, and its relationship with crop yield, constitutes a very important tool in the implementation of Precision Agriculture. Objective. To relate the phytosanitary status, obtained by experts through visual assessment, of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) plants affected by bud rot (BR), with the vegetation indices calculated with multispectral images obtained with an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Materials and methods. The study was conducted in a four-hectare plantation with oil palm three-year-old, owned by CoopeCalifornia R.L., located in Parrita, Costa Rica. Four visual assessments of the BR state were conducted from December 2014 to February 2017. With these assessments, the spatial-temporal evaluation of the incidence of BR during 26 months was obtained. In the last evaluation, a flight was performed with a UAV carrying a Parrot Sequoia multispectral camera, with which vegetation indexes were calculated and then related to the BR status of the oil palm plants. Results. A high spatial and temporal variability of BR was found during all visual evaluations performed. A strong relationship was also found between data from field assessments and data generated from remote sensing. The Simple Ratio (SR) vegetation index showed significant differences between plants classified as healthy and plants classified with BR, with degrees 2 and 3 of severity. Conclusions. Field data, obtained through expert judgment, can be linked to high spatial resolution multispectral information to identify BR in commercial oil palm plantations.

Abstract Divergence studies are essential for the conservation of genetic resources and guidance in genetic improvement programs. This study aimed to assess the phenotypic dispersion of half-sib progenies using Gower’s algorithm and the non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis based on qualitative and quantitative traits. Twenty-two half-sib progenies of African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) were evaluated in a randomized block design with 22 treatments (progenies/origin), with 30 replications and one plant per plot, totaling 660 plants. The total tree height (cm), diameter at soil level (cm), chlorophyll A and B, presence of bifurcation, presence of lateral branches, stem tortuosity, and the phytosanitary and nutritional status according to a rating scale were evaluated. Data analysis was performed at the progeny mean level for the quantitative traits and the modal value was used for the qualitative traits. The technique used presented the distance between the progenies of K. senegalensis in a graphical form. The dispersion of the progenies in the graph is indicative that there is phenotypic variation in the progeny test, allowing to select individuals with characteristics of interest to improve mahogany for Piauí. Gower’s algorithm applied to mixed data and non-metric multidimensional scaling are efficient methods to describe phenotypic similarities between progenies.

Resumen: En Uruguay se reportaron en frutales de carozo los siguientes agentes: pnrsv (Prunus necrotic ringspot virus), pdv (Prune dwarf virus), aclsv (Apple chlorotic leafspot virus), apmv (Apple mosaic virus) y plmvd (Peach latent mosaic viroid). pnrsv y pdv están muy difundidos y se comprobó su transmisión en montes comerciales y por semilla. Producen pérdidas relevantes en viveros y plantaciones comerciales. aclsv, apmv y plmvd no están muy difundidos y no se detectó ppv (causante de sharka, Plum pox virus). La certificación obligatoria de plantas de frutales de hoja caduca es supervisada por el inase. Se cuenta con fuentes de materiales de propagación sanos de portainjertos y cultivares, pero la mayor parte de las plantas demandadas corresponden a la categoría con menores análisis por virosis. La sustentabilidad económica del sistema se ve amenazada por una demanda limitada, diversa y en disminución. La Dirección General de Servicios Agrícolas del mgap establece los requisitos fitosanitarios de importación, tratando de evitar el ingreso de nuevas plagas (cuarentenarias). Es difícil que los proveedores de nuevos cultivares o portainjertos obtengan el certificado fitosanitario oficial requerido para la importación y los riesgos de ingreso de plagas son grandes. Por eso muchos países mantienen estaciones cuarentenarias posentrada donde los materiales introducidos están bajo medidas de seguridad hasta su liberación. En algunas regiones frutícolas, con enfermedades importantes se realizan campañas de erradicación de plantas, control de vectores y plantación de plantas certificadas. Considerando la actual situación sanitaria y económica de los frutales de carozo en Uruguay ello no se justificaría. En cambio, sería recomendable: 1) evitar el ingreso de nuevas plagas, planteándose estaciones de cuarentena posentrada, 2) realizar vigilancia permanente detectando problemas de forma temprana, 3) valorizar la sanidad en las plantas certificadas y 4) realizar las nuevas plantaciones con plantas certificadas libres de enfermedades.

Abstract: The following agents were reported in Uruguay in stone fruit trees: pnrsv (Prunus necrotic ringspot virus), pdv (Prune dwarf virus), aclsv (Apple chlorotic leafspot virus), apmv (Apple mosaic virus) and plmvd (Peach latent mosaic viroid). pnrsv and pdv are widespread, their plant to plant transmission in the orchard and by seed was confirmed and causes important losses in nurseries and commercial plantations. aclsv, apmv y plmvd are not widely disseminated, and ppv (causal agent of sharka, Plum pox virus) was not found. Certification of fruit tree plants supervised by the inase is mandatory. Healthy propagative materials of cultivars and rootstocks are available, but growers prefer the cheapest plants with less coverage of certification. A limited, uneven, and decreasing demand for healthy plants threatens the sustainability of the system. Phytosanitary requirements to prevent the entry of new pests (quarantine) are established by Ministry of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries. Official phytosanitary documents required are often difficult to obtain by the suppliers of new cultivars or rootstocks and the risk of pest introduction is high. For this reason, many countries have post entry quarantine stations where introduced plant materials are kept under surveillance until release to the industry. Some fruit producing regions that have important diseases perform plant eradication programs, control of vectors and replacement with certified plants; but, according to the current sanitary status of stone fruit trees in Uruguay, that would not be necessary yet. Conversely, it would be advisable to: 1) prevent the arrival of new pests, considering to set post quarantine plant stations, 2) keep an active surveillance to early detect sanitary problems, 3) encourage sanitary quality on certified plants and 4) develop new orchards using virus-free certified plants.

Resumo: No Uruguai se reportaram nos frutais de caroço os seguintes agentes: PNRSV (Prunus necrotic ringspot virus), PDV (Prune dwarf virus), ACLSV (Apple chlorotic leafspot virus), ApMV (Apple mosaic virus) y PLMVd (Peach latent mosaic viroid). PNRSV e PDV estão muito estendidos e comprovou-se sua transmissão em pomares comerciais e por semente. Provocam perdas importantes em viveiros e plantações comerciais. ACLSV, ApMV e PLMVd não estão muito estendidos e não se detectou PPV (agente causal da sharka, Plum pox virus). A certificação obrigatória das mudas de frutais de clima temperado é supervisada pelo Instituto Nacional de Semillas (INASE). Conta-se com fontes de materiais de propagação sadios de porta-enxertos e cultivares, mas a maior parte das plantas demandadas correspondem à categoria com menores análises por viroses. A sustentabilidade econômica do sistema se vê ameaçada por uma demanda limitada, diversa e decrescente. A Dirección General de Servicios Agrícolas do MGAP, estabelece os requisitos fitossanitários de importação, tratando de evitar o ingresso de novas pragas (quarentenárias). É difícil que os provedores de novas cultivares ou porta-enxertos obtenham o certificado fitossanitário oficial requerido para a importação e os riscos de ingresso de pragas são grandes. Por isso, muitos países mantêm estações quarentenárias pós-entrada onde os materiais introduzidos estão sob medidas de segurança até sua liberação. Em algumas regiões frutícolas, com doenças importantes se realizam campanhas de erradicação de plantas, controle de vetores e plantio de plantas certificadas. Considerando a atual situação sanitária e econômica dos frutais de caroço no Uruguai isto não se justificaria. Em contrapartida, seria recomendável: 1) evitar o ingresso de novas pragas, implementando-se estações de quarentena pós-entrada, 2) realizar vigilância permanente detectando problemas de forma antecipada, 3) valorizar a sanidade nas plantas certificadas e 4) realizar as novas plantações com plantas cerificadas livres de doenças.

RESUMO As culturas de soja produzidas nas planícies do leste da Colômbia vem sendo afetadas pela incidência de ferrugem. A doença, ainda considerada oficialmente, pelo Departamento de Agricultura da Colômbia (ICA) como ferrugem americana (ocasionada pelo fungo Phakopsora meibomiae), causa sérios danos à produção nas áreas de cultivo da soja. Os sintomas têm sido observados desde 2004 na metade superior das plantas durante os estágios vegetativos, como lesões marrom-avermelhadas. Em 2005 e 2018, tecidos foliares infectados e uredinosporos foram coletados em uma área experimental e cultivos comerciais dessa cultura. Uma vez que a identificação morfológica e os postulados de Koch confirmaram a presença de Phakopsora spp., foi realizada uma caracterização molecular para se identificar, a nível de espécie, o patógeno associado à ferrugem da soja. Estes foram baseados em procedimentos padrão com espaçadores de transcrição internos (ITS) do rDNA e amplificação por PCR com primers específicos para P. meibomiae e P. pachyrhizi. As sequências obtidas foram verificados por meio do Blast no site do GenBank/NCBI. Os resultados indicaram que Phakopsora pachyrhizi Sydow é, de fato, o agente causal da ferrugem da soja na Colômbia, considerando-se as amostras coletadas em 2005 e 2018. As sequências do ITS-rDNA de P. pachyrhizi foram depositadas com os números de acesso do GenBank MK933723 até MK933731. A informação foi repassada ao ICA, para que atualize oficialmente a situação fitossanitária desse patógeno da soja na Colombia.

ABSTRACT Soybean crops grown in the plains of eastern Colombia have been affected by the incidence of rust. This disease, still officially regarded as American soybean rust (caused by Phakopsora meibomiae) by the Colombian Department of Agriculture (ICA), causes serious damage to soybean growing areas. Symptoms of rust, such as reddish-brown lesions, have been observed since 2004 in the upper half of plants during vegetative stages. In 2005 and 2018, infected leaf tissues and uredinospores were collected from an experimental area and from commercial soybean fields. Once morphological identification and Koch’s postulates confirmed the presence of Phakopsora spp., molecular characterization was performed to identify the pathogen associated with the disease to species level. This was based on standard procedures using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of rDNA and PCR amplification with specific primers for Phakopsora meibomiae and P. pachyrhizi. The obtained sequences were BLASTed against GenBank/NCBI data bank. Results indicated that P. pachyrhizi Sydow is in fact the causative agent of soybean rust in Colombia, considering the samples collected in 2005 and 2018. The ITS-rDNA sequences of P. pachyrhizi were deposited at GenBank under the accession numbers MK933723 to MK933731. This finding was reported to ICA, so that they could officially update the phytosanitary status of this soybean pathogen in Colombia.

We evaluated the phytosanitary risk associated with illegal importation of pest-infested plant commodities into South Africa. Samples were collected from different South African ports of entry over 8 years (2011 to 2019) and data were analysed descriptively using Statistical Software Package. Pests were frequently detected on commodity species such as Citrus (18.31%), Zea mays (13.22%), Phaseolus vulgaris (12.88%), Musa spp. (9.15%) and Fragaria ananassa (5.08%). The highest number of pests intercepted occurred on fresh fruits (44.06%), followed by grains (26.44%) and vegetables (14.23%). The most intercepted organisms were Callosobruchus rhodesianus (7.79%), Dysmicoccus brevipes (7.11%), Callosobruchus maculates (6.10%) and Phyllosticta citricarpa (4.74%). The majority of intercepted organisms were non-quarantine organisms (70.50%), followed by pests of unknown status (17.28%), quarantine pests (10.84%) and potential quarantine pests (1.35%). Phyllosticta citricarpa, Bactrocera dorsalis, Spodoptera frugiperda and Prostephanus truncatus were the only quarantine pests intercepted in terms of South African regulatory status. The interception was mainly from southern African countries, particularly Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Eswatini. The findings present the level of phytosanitary risk associated with illegal importation and/or non-compliance in regard to plants and plant commodities from different countries through South African ports of entry. Crop production, biodiversity, food security, existing export markets, and access to new export markets could be threatened as importing countries may impose stringent phytosanitary measures to limit the chances of introduction and establishment of quarantine pests into their territories.SIGNIFICANCE: • Illegal importation of plant commodities may lead to the introduction, establishment and spread of pests that are of quarantine significance to South Africa. • Introduction of pest species such as Phyllosticta citricarpa, Bactrocera dorsalis, Spodoptera frugiperda and Prostephanus truncatus into South Africa could result in undesirable impacts on the ecosystem, agriculture, biodiversity and economy of the country. • Access to new export markets of plant commodities could be threatened as importing countries may impose stringent phytosanitary measures to limit the chances of introduction and establishment of these quarantine pests into their territories.

RESUMO A pesquisa foi desenvolvida tendo como objetivo de diagnosticar a situação da arborização urbana em um setor da cidade de Sancti Spíritus. Para tal, procedeu-se a elaboração de um inventário em três parcelas pré-estabelecidos numa área de 25,30 ha. As espécies arbóreas da área selecionada foram classificadas de acordo a taxonomía, uso, função, localização, estado de desenvolvimento e fitossanitário. Foram identificados problemas de conflito e estimado o volume de madeira dos espécimes em estado de alto desenvolvimento do caule. Na seção estudada, foram contabilizadas 1.522 árvores, pertencentes a 59 espécies, 55 gêneros e 32 famílias, das quais Fabaceae e Meliaceae são as mais bem representadas com 10 e 8 espécies, respectivamente. Casuarina equisetifolia L. e Hibiscus elatus Sw. apresentaram o maior número de exemplares com mais de 200 em cada caso. As espécies madeireiras predominam (55,93 %), das quais 722 espécimes encontram-se em estado de alto desenvolvimento do caule, com volume de madeira estimado de 711.280 m3 em geral. 62,71 % dos indivíduos contados são perenes, e 49,16 % correspondem a espécies autôctonas. Árvores em grupos predominam (59,46 %); 85,28 % apresentam bom estado fitossanitário enquanto 61,76 % necessita de algum tipo de cuidado silvicultural. Os principais problemas identificados foram a localização das árvores em solos compactados; danos a infraestruturas causados pelos sistemas radicais e proximidade de fiação elétrica e telefônica. Por fim, propõe-se um conjunto de medidas contributivas para a melhoria dos problemas identificados.

ABSTRACT The current research was carried out with the aim of diagnosing the situation of the urban trees in a section of Sancti Spíritus city. For this, an area of 25.39 ha was selected, where three plots were established, in which the inventory and classification of tree species in terms of taxonomy, origin, uses, type of location, state of development and phytosanitary was carried out, unrest problems were identified, and the volume of wood from those in the state of high trunk development was also estimated. In the studied section, 1 522 trees were counted, belonging to 59 species, 55 genera and 32 families, of which Fabaceae and Meliaceae were the best represented with 10 and 8 species respectively. Casuarina equisetifolia L. and Hibiscus elatus Sw. specified the largest number of individuals with more than 200 in each case. Timber species predominate (55.93 %), of which 722 examples are in high trunk development state, with an estimated volume of wood of 711.280 m3 in general. 62.71 % of the counted individuals are evergreen, and 49.16 % correspond to autochthons species. Trees in groups predominate (63.4 %); 85.28% have a good phytosanitary status while 61.76 % need some type of silvicultural care. The main problems identified were location of trees in compact soils; damage to infrastructures caused by root systems and proximity to electrical and telephone wiring. Finally, some measures are proposed to contribute to the improvement of the identified problems.

RESUMEN La investigación se realizó con el objetivo diagnosticar la situación del arbolado urbano en una sección de la ciudad de Sancti Spíritus. Para ello, se seleccionó un área de 25,39 ha donde se establecieron tres parcelas, en las que se realizó el inventario y clasificación de las especies arbóreas en cuanto a taxonomía, origen, usos, tipo de emplazamiento, estado de desarrollo y fitosanitario; se identificaron los problemas de conflictividad y estimó el volumen de madera de los ejemplares en estado de desarrollo fustal alto. En la sección estudiada, se contabilizaron 1522 árboles, pertenecientes a 59 especies, 55 géneros y 32 familias, de las cuales, Fabaceae y Meliaceae son las mejores representadas con diez y ocho especies respectivamente. La Casuarina equisetifolia L. e Hibiscus elatus Sw. presentaron el mayor número de ejemplares con más de 200 en cada caso. Predominan las especies maderables (55,93 %), de las cuales, 722 ejemplares se encuentran en el estado de desarrollo fustal alto, con un volumen de madera estimado de 711,280 m3 en general. El 62,71 % de las especies son perennifolias, y el 49,16 % corresponde a especies autóctonas. Predominan los árboles en grupos (63,4 %); el 85,28 % presenta buen estado fitosanitario, mientras que el 61,76 % necesita algún tipo de atención silvicultural. Los principales problemas identificados fueron ubicación de árboles en suelos compactados; daños a infraestructuras provocados por los sistemas radiculares y la cercanía al cableado eléctrico y telefónico. Finalmente, se proponen un conjunto de acciones para contribuir al mejoramiento de los problemas identificados.

RESUMO A alface é o vegetal folhoso para salada mais cultivado na Colômbia, sendo o município de Madrid, no Departamento de Cundinamarca, o segundo maior produtor. Nessa região, foram detectadas plantas com sintomas foliares caracterizados por manchas necróticas de coloração castanha formando uma extensa área necrótica, clorose, distorção foliar e atrofia das plantas, causados por infecção viral possivelmente associada ao gênero Orthotospovirus. Objetivou-se identificar as espécies de orthotospovirus associadas aos sintomas, contribuindo para a atualização do estatuto fitossanitário da alface nessa região. Foi constatada a presença de orthotospovirus pelo ensaio de imunoabsorção enzimática (DAS-ELISA), embora a sequência do gene nucleocapsid (N) tenha confirmado a presença de Alstroemeria necrotic streak orthotospovirus, desconsiderando-se o Tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus e Impatiens necrotic spot orthotospovirus previamente relatados para essa cultura, sendo este o seu primeiro relato para o cultivo de alface na Colômbia.

ABSTRACT Lettuce is the most cultivated leafy salad vegetable in Colombia, being the municipality of Madrid, in the Department of Cundinamarca, the second largest producer. In this region, lettuce plants with foliar symptoms characterized by brown necrotic spots forming an extended necrotic area, chlorosis, leaf distortion and plant stunting have been detected, possibly caused by a viral infection associated with the Orthotospovirus genus. This study aimed to identify the orthotospovirus species associated with those symptoms, contributing to updating the lettuce phytosanitary status in this region. The presence of orthotospovirus was confirmed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA), although the sequence of the nucleocapsid (N) gene confirmed the presence of Alstroemeria necrotic streak orthotospovirus, disregarding the Tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus and Impatiens necrotic spot orthotospovirus previously reported for this crop, being this its first report in lettuce crops in Colombia.

Resumo A implementação adequada da arborização urbana é uma das formas de reduzir o impacto social ecológico do crescimento das cidades. O objetivo do presente estudo é inventariar a arborização urbana no bairro do Humaitá, que é um modelo de arborização urbana na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. Objetivamos registrar o status fitossanitário de cada árvore, potenciais usos populares e danos causados à infraestrutura urbana pelas plantas. A coleta de dados foi baseada no inventário das árvores nas ruas e praças do bairro. As árvores foram identificadas e classificadas com base em fitossanidade, impacto na fiação, pavimento, origem e uso. No total, foram contabilizados 1.203 indivíduos pertencentes a 88 espécies e 32 famílias. As espécies mais abundantes foram Pachira aquatica e Terminalia catappa. As famílias mais comumente cultivadas foram Fabaceae e Arecaceae. No total, 67% das espécies contadas e 83% dos indivíduos registrados eram exóticos. Licania tomentosa foi a espécie mais prejudicial à fiação. Licania tomentosa e Ficus benjamina foram as espécies mais danosas a pavimentação das ruas. Com base nos resultados, concluímos que poucas árvores são prejudiciais à infraestrutura da cidade. Do ponto de vista da biodiversidade, existem muitas espécies exóticas e falta um uso mais intensivo de espécies nativas, o que não é positivo dado que a arborização tem forte impacto nos ecossistemas naturais da cidade.

Abstract The objective of this study is to inventory the tree species in the urban forestry of Humaitá district, which is an urban-planning model in the city of Rio de Janeiro. We aim to evaluate the phytosanitary status of each tree, potential popular uses and damages caused by trees to the infrastructure. Data collection was based on inventoring the trees on streets and squares of the neighborhood. Trees were identified and classified based on plant health, spinning damage, pavement damage, origin of the species and social use. In total, we sampled 1,203 individuals belonging to 88 species and 32 families. The most abundant species were Pachira aquatica and Terminalia catappa. Fabaceae and Arecaceae were the most commonly cultivated plant families. In total, 67% of the recorded species and 83% of the individuals registered were exotic. Licania tomentosa was the most damaging species to electric wires. Licania tomentosa and Ficus benjamina were the most damaging species to pavement. We conclude that few trees species are damaging the infrastructure. From a biodiversity perspective, there are too many exotic species and a lack of native species, as urban afforestation has strong impact on natural ecosystems of the City.

Abstract. Food and health are vital needs and legitimate human rights. Agriculture, exceeded by the Industrial Revolution and subsequent economic development has been fundamental to face the SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19 health contingency. Its essentiality, in contrast to most economic sectors’ shutdown, implied the uninterrupted agricultural production to guarantee worldwide food supply despite the farmer’s risk. Consequently, the Mexican agricultural segment had sustained growth with a global food production contribution of 59.2%, ranking 12th in the world in 2020. Phytosanitary activities have been fundamental in the production and global mobilization of healthy and safe food through safety programs and pest-free status certifications. The regional-crossboundary phytosanitary-internationalpreventivemodel has strengths applicable to Public Health Systems whose current trend favors thepatient-client curativeapproach in the hospital-outpatient environment. The COVID-19 pandemic represents a multidimensional problem that exceeds the Public Health Systems. The development of a preventive Pansystemic Modelto address integral human health, involving causes and effects for this and future epidemics is urgent. The necessity of a new agricultural production paradigm that balances the growing global demand for healthy food, with sustainable and resilient ecosystem services with comprehensive human and environmental health indicators is also recognized. This work analyzes 31 contributions of the Mexican Journal of Phytopathology integrated into the Special Issue‘COVID-19 and Plan Heath’, promoted internationally among producers, researchers, and academia to communicate the phytosanitary contribution to the society, with emphasis on Phytopathology, at the multidimensional COVID-19 solution.

Resumen. El alimento y la salud son necesidades fundamentales de la vida y legítimos derechos humanos. La Agricultura, superada por la Revolución Industrial y ulterior desarrollo económico, ha sido fundamental ante la contingencia sanitaria por SARS-CoV-2 / COVID-19. Su esencialidad, en contraste con el cierre temporal del resto de sectores económicos, implicó la producción ininterrumpida de productos agropecuarios para garantizar el suministro mundial de alimentos a pesar del riesgo para el trabajador de campo. Consecuentemente, el sector agrícola mexicano tuvo un crecimiento sostenido con una contribución del 59.2% de la producción global alimentaria ubicándose en la 12° posición mundial en 2020. Las actividades fitosanitarias han sido fundamentales en la producción y movilización mundial alimentos saludables y seguros a través de programas de inocuidad y certificación fitosanitaria. El modelo preventivo internacional fitosanitario regional-transfronterizo posee fortalezas aplicables a los Sistemas Públicos de Salud cuya tendencia actual privilegia el enfoque curativo paciente - cliente del entorno hospitalario-ambulatorio. La pandemia COVID-19 representa un problema multidimensional que supera los Sistemas Públicos de Salud. Es urgente el desarrollo de un Modelo Pansistémico preventivo de salud integral que involucre causas y efectos para esta y futuras epidemias. Se reconoce la necesidad de un nuevo paradigma productivo agrícola que equilibre la demanda creciente mundial de alimentos saludables con servicios ecosistémicos sustentables y resilientes con indicadores integrales de salud humana y ambiental. Este trabajo analiza 31 contribuciones de la Revista Mexicana de Fitopatología integradas en el Número Especial ‘COVID-19 y Fitosanidad’, promovido internacionalmente entre productores, investigadores y academia para visibilizar y ponderar el aporte social de la Fitosanidad, con énfasis en la Fitopatología, en la solución multidimensional a COVID-19.

Abstract The purpose of plant health and protection is to generate actions for the control of agricultural pests and diseases, the use of pesticides and the determination of phytosanitary status for commercialization within the framework of food safety. However, plant protection as a normative and regulatory instrument has remained on the global and national scale, when pest management is mainly local. There is an institutional and territorial disarticulation regarding the regulation of pesticides. At a global level, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was recognized as the public policy of pest management and control, at the local level, this structure did not arrive and is not applied due to the lack of a phytosanitary extension model. This means that the only means to eradicate agricultural pests is the indiscriminate use of pesticides, some prohibited, in other countries due to the significant effects on human health and the environment. However, Mexico allows its distribution and commercialization. The research was developed in the agricultural valley of Rioverde and Ciudad Fernández, two municipalities in the state of San Luis Potosí, considered an area of great importance in agricultural terms, above all, due to its high productivity of orange cultivation. It has also been characterized by the use of dangerous pesticides, which has affected the health of the population and concern for its most important resource, water. Due to the aforementioned, this work aimed to demonstrate that territorial governance problems constitute the most important challenge to face and solve the pesticide problem in Mexico. The methodological process had a qualitative and quantitative approach based on the extension of innovation through geotechnologies for the identification of areas and plots with greater use of pesticides to combat pests and diseases of crops. The methodological process consisted of two phases: a) the sampling was through the mobile application called “Agroquímicos LAGES” developed by the National Laboratory of Geoprocessing of Phytosanitary Information (LaNGIF), this process was in charge of students of Engineering in Agricultural Innovation Sustainable Institute of the Higher Technological Institute (ITS) and of Agroindustrial Engineering and Agronomic Engineering in Phytotechnics of the Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí (UASLP), generating a database with 22,939 data on producers, crops and pesticides; b) The data analysis consisted, first of all, in making a distinction between permitted and restricted pesticides detected in the area based on the Registry of Canceled Pesticides and Nutrients of the Federal Commission for Protection against Sanitary Risks (COFEPRIS) for later apply the non-parametric statistical hypothesis test Chi square (X2) and thus determine the existence of association between the level of education, type of crop (vegetables, corn and orange) and the taxonomic group with pesticides, likewise an analysis was carried out Multicriteria to identify and classify, through spatial nodes, the areas with restricted pesticide application and in turn, the characterization of the producers, the cultivation and the land tenure. As a result, it was obtained that the “agronomic houses” control the management of pesticides, which are small private businesses that face lax agricultural, environmental and health policies, and act outside the state and national regulations; In statistical terms, the crops with the highest frequency of restricted pesticide use were corn and vegetables, and in spatial terms, restricted pesticides such as: Diazinon, Glyphosate, Carbofuran, Chlorpyrifos Ethyl, Methamidophos, Metomil and Monocrotophos are applied in the El Refugio ejido. all Highly Hazardous Pesticides (HHP). Given this scenario, it is considered necessary to generate inventories according to the phytosanitary status of pests and diseases, in addition to diagnoses on the use of pesticides at a local scale. Without this, actions aimed at solving, remedying and reducing the economic, environmental and health problems caused by said disarticulation are difficult. The methodological triad that consisted of the use of geotechnologies, statistical analysis and spatial analysis allows us to generate diagnoses and monitor the use and management of pesticides, at low cost and at a local scale. It is important to note that the identification of the areas with the greatest application of restricted pesticides does not have the motivation to transfer responsibility to the producer. On the contrary, they are intended to direct phytosanitary extension actions to specific sites.

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